Sensory Profiling of Dairy Products

About the Editor JOHN J. TUOHY is the Director of 2e Technical Development Ltd, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland, which specialises in dairy technology consulting and is an active member of both the Publications Committee and Council of the Society of Dairy Technology (SDT).

List of Contributors xiii

Preface to the Technical Series xix

Preface xix

1 Sensory Analysis and Consumer Mind- Sets and Emotions for Dairy Products 1
Attila Gere, Barbara Biró, Dalma Radványi, Ryan Zemel, Petraq Papajorgji and Howard Moskowitz

1.1 Introduction 1

1.1.1 History of the sensory analysis of dairy products 1

1.1.2 Changes in consumer habits 3

1.2 How MG approaches the problem of understanding new versus traditional in cheese 4

1.3 Looking at different groups of respondents 9

1.4 Linking emotions to messages 11

1.5 Finding mind- sets in the population for future communication, research and sales efforts 12

1.6 The multiple contributions of MG to scientific investigation 14

1.7 The role of emotions 15

Acknowledgement 15

References 15

2 Physiology of Sensory Perception of Flavour and Mouthfeel Stimuli Imparted by Dairy Products 18
Lisa Methven, Stella Lignou, Stephanie Bull, Maria Jose Oruna- Concha and Rosa Sullivan

2.1 Introduction 18

2.2 Aroma perception 18

2.2.1 Physiology of aroma perception 19

2.3 Taste perception 21

2.3.1 Physiology of taste perception 22

2.3.2 Oleogustus, a taste response to fatty acids 25

2.3.3 Taste perception of peptides and diketopiperazines and their relevance to cheese 26

2.3.4 The perception of kokumi and its relevance to cheese 27

2.4 Mouthfeel perception 30

2.4.1 Physiology of mouthfeel perception 30

2.4.2 The perception of key mouthfeel attributes relevant to dairy products 31

2.4.3 The influence of oral processing and saliva 32

2.4.4 The perception of mouth- drying in high- protein dairy products 32

2.5 Chemesthesis 33

2.6 The influence of individual differences in phenotype and genotype and their relevance to the perception of dairy products 33

References 35

3 Sensory Data Analysis and Future Developments 44
Matthew McSweeney

3.1 Introduction 44

3.2 Scoring methods 45

3.2.1 Affective testing 45

3.2.2 Cluster analysis 46

3.2.3 Just about right 47

3.2.4 Intensity scales 48

3.3 Descriptive analysis 49

3.4 Rapid sensory analysis 51

3.4.1 Check- all- that- apply (CATA) 51

3.4.2 Projective mapping 53

3.5 Conclusions 54

References 54

4 Application of Multivariate Statistical Analysis and Machine Learning to Sensory Data Analysis 57
Ana C.M. Pinheiro, Elenilson G. Alves Filho, Michele N. Ribeiro, Jéssica F. Rodrigues, Tatiana C. Pimentel, Lorena M.A. Silva, Sueli Rodrigues, Erick A. Esmerino and Adriano G. da Cruz

4.1 Introduction 57

4.2 Multivariate analysis applied to data from sensory assessment of dairy products 57

4.2.1 Principal component analysis 59

4.2.2 Correspondence analysis 60

4.2.3 Hierarchical cluster analysis 60

4.2.4 Generalised Procrustes analysis 60

4.2.5 Multiple- factor analysis 60

4.2.6 Distatis 61

4.3 Machine learning 62

4.4 Conclusions 65

References 65

5 Projective Sensory Evaluation Methods for Dairy Products 68
Adriana Gambaro, Marcelo Miraballes, Adriano G. da Cruz and Erick A. Esmerino

5.1 Introduction 68

5.2 Categories of projective methods 69

5.2.1 Word association 69

5.2.2 Construction task 72

5.2.3 Completion task 73

5.2.4 Choice ordering task 75

5.2.5 Expressive task 76

5.3 Comparison of projective techniques in dairy products case studies 76

5.4 Analysis of projective technique data 77

5.5 Online versus paper- based surveys 78

5.6 Conclusions 78

References 78

6 Sensory Attributes of Liquid Milk Products 81
Elson R. Filho, Amanda A. Prestes, Maria H. Canella, Elane S. Prudencio, Mônica Q. Freitas, Tatiana C. Pimentel, Erick A. Esmerino and Adriano G. da Cruz

6.1 Introduction 81

6.2 Sensory evaluation of heat- treated fluid milk 85

6.3 Influence of heat treatment on sensory characteristics of milk 91

6.3.1 Sensory profile of pasteurised milk 93

6.3.2 Sensory profile of ESL (extended- shelf- life) milk 94

6.3.3 Sensory profile of UHT (ultra- high- temperature) milk 95

6.3.4 Sensory profile of sterilised milk 96

6.4 Sensory profile of flavoured milks 97

References 99

7 Sensory Profile of Yoghurt and Related Products 103
Amanda A. Prestes, Elane S. Prudencio, Maria H. Canella, Mônica Q. Freitas, Elson R. Filho, Tatiana C. Pimentel, Erick A. Esmerino and Adriano G. da Cruz

7.1 Introduction 103

7.2 Yoghurt and related products 104

7.2.1 Natural yoghurt 104

7.2.2 Concentrated yoghurts 105

7.2.3 Sweetened and flavoured yoghurts 105

7.2.4 Drinking yoghurt 106

7.2.5 Frozen yoghurt 106

7.3 Sensory profile of yoghurt and related products 106

7.3.1 Sensory profile of natural yoghurt (set and stirred type) 107

7.3.2 Sensory profile of concentrated yoghurts 110

7.3.3 Sensory profile of sweetened and flavoured yoghurt products 111

7.3.4 Drinking yoghurt 114

7.3.5 Sensory profile of frozen yoghurt 116

References 116

8 Sensory Profiles of Middle Eastern and Related Cheeses 120
Barbaros Özer, Şebnem Ö. Budak and Hamid Ghoddusi

8.1 Introduction 120

8.2 Sensory evaluation of Middle Eastern and related cheeses 120

8.3 Cheeses ripened in brine 123

8.3.1 Ezine 126

8.3.2 Edirne Beyaz 127

8.3.3 Feta 127

8.3.4 Lighvan and Iranian White cheeses 129

8.3.5 Akkawi 130

8.3.6 Domiati 130

8.3.7 Mish 132

8.3.8 Nabulshi 132

8.3.9 Erzurum Civil 132

8.3.10 Izmir Tulum 132

8.3.11 Van Otlu 133

8.3.12 Urfa 133

8.4 Scalded and pasta- filata- type cheeses 133

8.4.1 Kashkaval 134

8.4.2 Halloumi 134

8.4.3 Graviera 137

8.4.4 Diyarbakır Orgu 137

8.5 Cheeses ripened in animal skins or pots 138

8.5.1 Divle Tulum 138

8.5.2 Savak Tulum 138

8.5.3 Yozgat Canak 139

8.6 Kopanisti cheese 139

References 139

9 Sensory Profiles of Pan- American Fresh, Soft and Other Cheese Varieties 145
Callebe Camelo- Silva, Monique Juna Lopes Leite, Giordana Demaman Arend, Tatiana C. Pimentel, Marco Di Luccio, Silvani Verruck, Erick A. Esmerino and Adriano G. da Cruz

9.1 Introduction 145

9.2 Oaxaca cheese 146

9.3 Queso Chihuahua 148

9.4 Mozzarella- type pizza topping cheese 150

9.5 Quark 153

9.6 Cottage cheese 156

9.7 Queso Fresco 158

9.8 Queso Blanco 160

9.9 Cotija cheese 161

9.10 Mexican Manchego 162

9.11 Minas Frescal 163

9.12 Coalho cheese 166

9.13 Conclusions 168

References 170

10 Sensory Characteristics of Cheddar and Related Cheeses Varieties 179
Maurice G. O’Sullivan

10.1 Introduction 179

10.2 Cheddar and related varieties 180

10.2.1 Cheddar 180

10.2.2 Washed- curd cheeses 181

10.2.3 Monterey Jack 181

10.3 Cheddar cheese grading methods 182

10.4 Sensory profiling methods for Cheddar cheese 182

10.5 Origin of Cheddar flavour and texture development 186

10.6 Reduced- salt Cheddar 188

10.7 Reduced- fat Cheddar 189

References 190

11 Sensory Characteristics of Swiss- type Cheese Varieties 195
Barbara Guggenbühl Gasser, Pascal Fuchsmann and Marie- Therese Fröhlich- Wyder

11.1 Introduction 195

11.2 Sensory evaluation methods 196

11.2.1 Grading and quality scoring by cheese experts 196

11.2.2 Descriptive profiling methods (quantitative descriptive tests) 196

11.2.3 Consumer testing 198

11.3 Sensory characteristics of Swiss- type cheese varieties 198

11.3.1 Role of propionic acid fermentation 198

11.3.2 Appearance 199

11.3.3 Texture 200

11.3.4 Flavour 201

11.4 Relationship between sensory data and analytical measurements 211

11.4.1 Relationship between microflora and perceived flavour 212

11.4.2 Relationship between volatile and non- volatile compounds and perceived flavour 213

11.5 Relationship between consumer data and descriptive panel data 218

11.6 Perception of defects of Swiss- type cheese varieties 219

11.7 Conclusions 219

References 220

12 Sensory Profiles of Very Hard Italian Cheeses and Related Varieties 225
Antonella Santillo and Marzia Albenzio

12.1 Introduction 225

12.2 Grana- type cheeses 225

12.2.1 Grana Padano 229

12.2.2 Trentingrana 231

12.2.3 Parmigiano Reggiano 232

12.2.4 Reggianito 233

12.3 Pecorino- type cheeses 233

12.3.1 Canestrato Pugliese 236

12.3.2 Fiore Sardo and Pecorino Romana 237

12.3.3 Canestrato di Moliterno 238

12.3.4 Idiazábal, Manchego, Roncal and Castellano 238

12.4 Asiago and Montasio cheeses 239

12.4.1 Asiago 240

12.4.2 Montasio 241

12.5 Conclusions 242

References 243

13 Sensory Profiles of Iberian and Related Cheese Varieties 246
Elena Molina, Lourdes Amigo and Daniel Lozano- Ojalvo

13.1 Introduction 246

13.2 Fresh Iberian cheese varieties 250

13.2.1 Afuega’l Pitu 250

13.2.2 Camerano 250

13.2.3 Cebreiro 260

13.2.4 De Murcia 260

13.3 Soft and semi- soft Iberian cheese 261

13.3.1 Arzúa- Ulloa 261

13.3.2 Azeitão 262

13.3.3 Cabrales 262

13.3.4 De Flor de Guía, De Guía and De Media Flor de Guía 263

13.3.5 De La Serena 263

13.3.6 De Valdeón 264

13.3.7 L’Alt Urgell y la Cerdanya 264

13.3.8 Los Beyos 264

13.3.9 Mahón- Menorca 265

13.3.10 Majorero 266

13.3.11 Mestiço Tolosa 267

13.3.12 Nata de Cantabria 267

13.3.13 Palmero 267

13.3.14 Pico 268

13.3.15 Quesucos de Liébana 268

13.3.16 Torta del Casar 269

13.4 Semi- hard Iberian cheeses varieties 269

13.4.1 Amarelo da Beira Baixa 270

13.4.2 Castelo Branco 270

13.4.3 De Murcia al Vino 270

13.4.4 Gamonedo 271

13.4.5 Ibores 271

13.4.6 Picón Bejes- Tresviso 272

13.4.7 San Simón da Costa 272

13.4.8 Serpa 273

13.4.9 Serra da Estrela 273

13.4.10 Terrincho 273

13.4.11 Tetilla 274

13.5 Semi- hard or hard Iberian cheese varieties 274

13.5.1 Casín 275

13.5.2 Évora 275

13.5.3 Idiazábal 275

13.5.4 Manchego 276

13.5.5 Nisa 276

13.5.6 Picante de Beira Baixa 277

13.5.7 Rabaçal 277

13.5.8 Roncal 277

13.5.9 São Jorge 278

13.5.10 Zamorano 278

13.6 Hard or extra- hard Iberian cheese varieties 278

13.6.1 Cabra Transmontano 279

References 279

14 Sensory Evaluation in Processed Cheese Innovation 286
Silvani Verruck, Saionara Sartor, Mônica Q. Freitas, Tatiana C. Pimentel, Erick A. Esmerino, Adriano G. da Cruz and Marice N. Oliveira

14.1 Introduction 286

14.2 Processed cheese products 288

14.3 Sensory characteristics of processed cheese 290

14.3.1 Sensory impact of sodium replacement 291

14.3.2 Sensory impact of fat replacement 298

14.3.3 Sensory impact of processed cheese fortification 306

14.4 Conclusions 313

References 313

15 Sensory Attributes of Fat- Rich Dairy and Ethnic Indian Products 318
Bhavbhuti M. Mehta and Suneeta Pinto

15.1 Introduction 318

15.2 Cream and cream products 319

15.2.1 Sensory attributes of creams 323

15.2.2 Sensory evaluation of creams 324

15.2.3 Flavour defects in cream 326

15.2.4 Common body and texture defects in cream 328

15.3 Butter 329

15.3.1 Sensory attributes of butter 329

15.3.2 Sensory evaluation of butter 331

15.3.3 Colour defects in butter 333

15.3.4 Flavour defects in butter 334

15.3.5 Body and texture defects in butter 336

15.4 Dairy spreads 339

15.4.1 Sensory defects in dairy spreads 339

15.5 Ghee/Anhydrous milk fat/butter oil 341

15.5.1 Sensory quality of ghee and butter oil 342

15.5.2 Sensory evaluation of ghee 344

15.6 Conclusions 346

References 346

16 Sensory Applications in Ice Cream and Frozen Desserts 350
R. Andrew Wilbey

16.1 Introduction 350

16.1.1 Formulation 351

16.1.2 Ingredients 352

16.1.3 Processing 353

16.2 Sampling and presentation 356

16.3 Choice of approach to sensory testing 358

16.3.1 Quality assurance 358

16.3.2 Competitions 358

16.3.3 Research and product development 360

16.4 Characterising the sensory properties of ice cream and frozen deserts 362

16.5 Impact of formulation changes on the sensory profile of ice cream 364

16.5.1 Fat reduction 364

16.5.2 Sucrose reduction 365

16.6 Consumer preference and acceptance testing 367

References 368

Index 371