Springer Handbook of Systematic Musicology (eBook)

Rolf Bader is professor for Systematic Musicology at the Institute of Systematic Musicology at the University of Hamburg, Germany. He studied Systematic Musicology, Physics, Ethnology and Historic Musicology at the University of Hamburg. There he obtained his PhD and habilitation on topics of Musical Acoustics, Music Psychology and Musical Signal Processing. He was a visiting scholar at the Center for Computer Music and Research (CCRMA) at Stanford University in 2005/2006. His major fields of research are Musical Acoustics and Musical Signal Processing, Musical Hardware and Software Development, Music Psychology and Neurocognition, Music Ethnology and Philosophy of Music. He is co-editor of the Springer series Current Research in Systematic Musicology. He published several books as an author, such as Nonlinearities and Synchronization in Musical Acoustics and Music Psychology or Computational Mechanics of the Classical Guitar. Additionally he edited Sound – Perception – Performance and Concepts, Experiments, and Fieldwork: Studies in Systematic Musicology and many contributing book chapters or peer-reviewed papers. He conducted fieldwork as an ethnomusicologist in Bali, Nepal, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, China and India since 1999. He was also working as a professional musician, composer and artist, running recording studios, working as a music journalist, leading exhibitions and running a cinema.

Preface 6
About the Editor 9
List of Authors 10
Contents 16
List of Abbreviations 28
1 Systematic Musicology: A Historical Interdisciplinary Perspective 33
1.1 Systematic Musicology: Discipline and Field of Research 33
1.2 Beginnings of Music Theory in Greek Antiquity 34
1.3 From the Middle Ages to the Renaissance and Beyond: Developments in Music Theory and Growth of Empiricism 35
1.4 Sauveur, Rameau and the Issue of Physicalism in Music Theory 37
1.5 Concepts of Systems and Systematic Research 39
1.6 Systematic Approaches: Chladni, Helmholtz, Stumpf, and Riemann 41
1.7 Gestalt Quality and Gestalt Psychology 44
1.8 Music Psychology: Individual and Sociocultural Factors 46
1.9 Some Modern Developments 47
1.10 Systematic Musicology as a Musicological Discipline 49
References 51
Part A Musical Acoustics and Signal Processing 57
2 Vibrations and Waves 61
2.1 Vibrations 61
2.2 Waves 65
2.3 Wave Equations 1-D 68
2.4 Solution for 1-D-Waves 72
2.5 Stiffness 78
References 78
3 Waves in Two and Three Dimensions 80
3.1 Waves on a Surface 80
3.2 Solution for Waves on a Surface 83
3.3 Sound Waves in Space 87
References 93
4 Construction of Wooden Musical Instruments 94
4.1 Scope 94
4.2 Physical Properties of Wood 96
4.3 Tonewoods 99
4.4 Framewoods 103
4.5 Construction 105
4.6 Conclusion 109
4.A Appendix 109
References 109
5 Measurement Techniques 111
5.1 Measurement of Airborne Sound 111
5.2 Measurement of Deflection 117
5.3 Measurement of Impedance 129
5.4 Conclusions 131
References 131
6 Some Observations on the Physics of Stringed Instruments 134
6.1 Three Classes of Stringed Instruments 134
6.2 Common Components and Issues 134
6.3 The Story of Three Instruments 137
6.4 Summary 146
References 147
7 Modeling of Wind Instruments 149
7.1 A Classification of Wind Instruments 149
7.2 The Clarinet 151
7.3 The Oboe 156
7.4 The Harmonica 158
7.5 The Trombone 159
7.6 The Flute 161
References 165
8 Properties of the Sound of Flue Organ Pipes 168
8.1 Experimental Methodology 169
8.2 Steady-Sound Characteristics 169
8.3 Edge and Mouth Tones 176
8.4 Characteristics of the Attack Transients 178
8.5 Discussion and Outlook 180
References 181
9 Percussion Musical Instruments 183
9.1 Drums 183
9.2 Mallet Percussion Instruments 186
9.3 Cymbals, Gongs, and Plates 190
9.4 Methods for Studying the Acoustics of Percussion Instruments 194
References 196
10 Musical Instruments as Synchronized Systems 197
10.1 Added versus Intrinsic Synchronization 197
10.2 Models of the Singing Voice 199
10.3 Harmonic Synchronization in Wind Instruments 204
10.4 Violin Bow–String Interaction 208
10.5 Fractal Dimensions of Musical Instrument Sounds 212
10.6 General Models of Musical Instruments 217
10.7 Conclusions 220
References 221
11 Room Acoustics – Fundamentals and Computer Simulation 223
11.1 Fundamentals of Sound Fields in Rooms 224
11.2 Statistical Room Acoustics 225
11.3 Reverberation 226
11.4 Stationary Excitation 227
11.5 Room Impulse Responses 227
11.6 Computers in Room Acoustics 232
11.7 Auralization 237
11.8 Current Research Topics 238
11.9 Final Remarks 239
References 240
Part B Signal Processing 242
12 Music Studio Technology 245
12.1 Microphones and Microphone Arrangements 246
12.2 Signal Preconditioning and Effects 251
12.3 Digitalization 256
12.4 Mixing Consoles 259
12.5 Synthesizer and Sequencer 260
12.6 Historical and Contemporary Audio Formats and Restoration 263
12.7 Signals, Connectors, Cables and Audio Networks 269
12.8 Loudspeakers, Reference Listening and Reinforcement 275
References 281
13 Delay-Lines and Digital Waveguides 283
13.1 Digital Delay Lines 283
13.2 Simulating Sound Wave Propagation 288
13.3 Digital Waveguides 291
References 295
14 Convolution, Fourier Analysis, Cross-Correlation and Their Interrelationship 297
14.1 Convolution 297
14.2 Fourier Frequency Analysis and Transformation 300
14.3 Cross-Correlation 304
References 308
15 Audio Source Separation in a Musical Context 309
15.1 REPET 310
15.2 Pitch-Based Source Separation 315
15.3 Leveraging the Musical Score 318
15.4 Conclusions 320
References 321
16 Automatic Score Extraction with Optical Music Recognition (OMR) 323
16.1 History 323
16.2 Overview 324
16.3 OMR Challenges 325
16.4 Technical Background 326
16.5 Adaptive OMR 329
16.6 Symbolic Music Encoding 329
16.7 Tools 331
16.8 Future 332
References 333
17 Adaptive Musical Control of Time-Frequency Representations 336
17.1 State-Space Analysis/Synthesis 337
17.2 Recursive, Infinite-Length Windows 339
17.3 Kalman Filter-Based Phase Vocoder 340
17.4 Additive Layer and Higher-Level Architecture 341
17.5 Sound Transformations 342
17.6 Adaptive Control of Sound Transformations 343
17.7 Chapter Summary 348
17.A Appendix 1: Chandrasekhar Implementation 337
17.B Appendix 2: Example 2 EKF Derivation 339
References 350
18 Wave Field Synthesis 352
18.1 Overview 352
18.2 Wave Equation and Solutions 353
18.3 Wave Front Synthesis 359
18.4 Current Research and Development 366
References 368
19 Finite-Difference Schemes in Musical Acoustics: A Tutorial 371
19.1 The 1-D Wave Equation 372
19.2 The Ideal Bar Equation 378
19.3 Acoustic Tubes 382
19.4 The 2-D and 3-D Wave Equations 386
19.5 Thin Linear Plate Vibration 399
19.6 Extensions to Nonlinear Systems 403
References 403
20 Real-Time Signal Processing on Field Programmable Gate Array Hardware 407
20.1 Overview 408
20.2 Digital Binary Logic 410
20.3 FPGA – A Structural Overview 412
20.4 Hardware Description Language (HDL) 416
20.5 FPGA Hardware Overview 419
20.6 FPGA Chips 419
20.7 Interfacing With a FPGA 421
20.8 Real-Time DSP Applications 424
20.9 Real-Time Filtering Applications 424
20.10 Real-Time Physical Modeling of Large-Scale Geometries 427
20.11 Summary and Outlook 436
References 437
Part C Music Psychology – Physiology 440
21 Auditory Time Perception 443
21.1 Methods for Studying Interval Processing 444
21.2 Processing Time Intervals: Variability 445
21.3 Processing Time Intervals: Perceived Duration 449
21.4 Theoretical Perspectives 454
21.5 Conclusion 455
References 455
22 Automatic Processing of Musical Sounds in the Human Brain 461
22.1 Perceiving the Music Around Us: An Attentive or Automatic Process? 461
22.2 The MMN as a Measure of Automatic Sound Processing in the Auditory Cortex 462
22.3 Neural Generators of the MMN 463
22.4 The MMN for Studying Automatic Processing of Simple Musical Rules 464
22.5 ERAN as an Index of Semiautomatic Processing of Musical Rules 465
22.6 Environmental Exposure Modulates the Automatic Neural Representations of Musical Sounds 465
22.7 Disrupted Automatic Discrimination of Musical Sounds 466
22.8 Conclusions 468
References 468
23 Long-Term Memory for Music 473
23.1 Long-Term Memory and the Semantic System 473
23.2 Semantic Memory for Music 474
23.3 Evidence from Neuropsychology 475
23.4 Concluding Comments 477
References 478
24 Auditory Working Memory 480
24.1 The Baddeley and Hitch WM Model: Theoretical Considerations and Empirical Support 480
24.2 WM: Behavioral Data 481
24.3 Neural Correlates Underlying WM 483
24.4 Sensorimotor Codes – Auditory WM and the Motor System 485
24.5 The Influence of LTM on Auditory WM Performance 487
24.6 Summary and Conclusion 487
References 488
25 Musical Syntax I: Theoretical Perspectives 492
25.1 Outline 492
25.2 Theories of Musical Syntax 493
25.3 Models of Musical Syntax 496
25.4 Syntactic Models of Different Complexity 497
25.5 Discussion 501
25.A Appendix: The Chomsky Hierarchy 492
References 502
26 Musical Syntax II: Empirical Perspectives 506
26.1 Computational Research 506
26.2 Psychological Research 513
26.3 Neuroscientific Research 515
26.4 Implications and Issues 517
References 518
27 Rhythm and Beat Perception 525
27.1 Temporal Regularity and Beat Perception 525
27.2 Behavioral Investigations 526
27.3 Electrophysiological Investigations 527
27.4 Hemodynamic (fMRI/PET) Investigations 532
27.5 Patient and Brain Stimulation Investigations 533
27.6 Discussion 534
References 535
28 Music and Action 540
28.1 Coupling Action and Perception Through Musical Experience 541
28.2 Responding to Music with Action and (Social) Interaction 545
28.3 Conclusion and Perspectives 551
References 551
29 Music and Emotions 555
29.1 The Rise of Music and Emotion Research 555
29.2 Structure of Emotions 556
29.3 Mechanisms and Modifiers of Emotions 559
29.4 Measures and Musical Materials 563
29.5 Current Challenges 565
References 566
Part D Psychophysics/Psychoacoustics 571
30 Fundamentals 574
30.1 Theoretical and Methodological Background 575
30.2 Types of Sound and Sound Features Relevant for Hearing and Music Perception 602
30.3 Some Basics of Sound in a Sound Field 611
References 613
31 Pitch and Pitch Perception 619
31.1 Pitch as Elementary Sensation and as Perceptual Quality 620
31.2 Sketch of the Auditory Pathway (AuP) 629
31.3 Excitation of the Auditory System: From the Tympanum to the BM, the IHC and OHC 631
31.4 Place Coding and Temporal Coding of Sound Features 634
31.5 Auditory Models and Pitch Extraction 641
31.6 Psychophysics 643
31.7 Categorical Pitch Perception, Relative and Absolute Pitch 654
31.8 Scales, Tone Systems, Aspects of Intonation 665
31.9 Geometric Pitch Models, Tonality 677
References 685
32 Perception of Timbre and Sound Color 700
32.1 Timbre and Sound Color: Basic Features 700
32.2 Sensation and Perception of Timbre and Sound Color 708
References 732
33 Sensation of Sound Intensity and Perception of Loudness 739
33.1 Physical and Physiological Basis of Sound Intensity Sensation 739
33.2 Models of Loudness Sensation 742
33.3 From Lab to Disco: Measurements and Perceptual Variability of Loudness 747
33.4 Summing up 749
References 751
Part E Music Embodiment 754
34 What Is Embodied Music Cognition? 757
34.1 Ontological and Epistemological Foundations 758
34.2 The Architecture of Embodied Music Cognition 760
34.3 Empirical Evidence for Embodied Music Cognition 763
34.4 Embodiment and Dynamic Cognition 766
34.5 Contributions to a Paradigm Shift in Systematic Musicology 767
34.6 Conclusion 767
References 768
35 Sonic Object Cognition 771
35.1 Object Focus 771
35.2 Ontologies 773
35.3 Motor Theory 774
35.4 Timescales and Duration Thresholds 775
35.5 Chunking 776
35.6 Sound Generation 777
35.7 Constraints and Idioms 778
35.8 Sound Synthesis 779
35.9 Feature Taxonomy 780
35.10 Shape Cognition 781
35.11 Typology and Morphology of Sonic Objects 782
35.12 Singular, Composed, Composite and Concatenated Objects 783
35.13 Textures, Hierarchies, Roles and Translations 784
35.14 Analysis-by-Synthesis 785
35.15 Summary 786
References 786
36 Investigating Embodied Music Cognition for Health and Well-Being 788
36.1 Transitions in Musicology and Society 788
36.2 Models of Music, Health and Well-Being 790
36.3 From Theory to Therapeutic Approaches 792
36.4 Conclusion 798
References 798
37 A Conceptual Framework for Music-Based Interaction Systems 801
37.1 A Conceptual Model of Music-Based Interaction Systems 802
37.2 The Human Reward System 803
37.3 Social Interaction 805
37.4 Monitoring, Motivation, and Alteration 805
37.5 The Evaluation of Music-Based Interactive Systems 807
37.6 Some Case Studies of Applications and Supporting Research 807
37.7 Conclusion 809
References 810
38 Methods for Studying Music-Related Body Motion 813
38.1 Some Key Challenges 813
38.2 Qualitative Motion Analysis 814
38.3 Video-Based Analyses 816
38.4 Sensor-Based Motion Capture 820
38.5 Synchronization and Storage 823
38.6 Conclusion 824
References 824
Part F Music and Media 827
39 Content-Based Methods for Knowledge Discovery in Music 830
39.1 Music Structure Analysis 831
39.2 Feature Representation 833
39.3 Music Synchronization and Navigation 834
39.4 Self-Similarity in Music Recordings 836
39.5 Automated Extraction of Repetitive Structures 842
39.6 Conclusions 845
References 845
40 Hearing Aids and Music: Some Theoretical and Practical Issues 848
40.1 Assessment of Musicians 849
40.2 Peripheral Sensory Hearing Loss 849
40.3 Direct Assessment of Music with a Peripheral Hearing Loss 851
40.4 Acoustic Properties of Music versus Speech 851
40.5 Some Strategies to Handle the More Intense Inputs of Music 853
40.6 Some Hearing-Aid Technologies to Handle the More Intense Inputs of Music 854
40.7 General Recommendations for an Optimal Hearing Aid for Music 856
40.8 Conclusions and Recommendations for Further Research 858
References 858
41 Music Technology and Education 861
41.1 Background 862
41.2 Music Education Tools 863
41.3 Sound Source Separation for the Creation of Music Practice Material 865
41.4 Drum Transcription for Real-Time Music Practice 868
41.5 Guitar Transcription Beyond Score Notation 871
41.6 Discussion and Future Challenges 874
References 875
42 Music Learning: Automatic Music Composition and Singing Voice Assessment 878
42.1 Related Work on Melody Composition 879
42.2 Related Work on Voice Analysis for Assessment 879
42.3 Music Composition for Singing Assessment 880
42.4 Singing Assessment 884
42.5 Summary 886
References 887
43 Computational Ethnomusicology: A Study of Flamenco and Arab-Andalusian Vocal Music 889
43.1 Motivation 889
43.2 Background 891
43.3 Case Study 893
43.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 899
43.5 Complementary Material 900
References 900
44 The Relation Between Music Technology and Music Industry 902
44.1 Recording and Performance 904
44.2 Music Creation 906
44.3 Music Distribution and Consumption 909
44.4 Conclusion 910
References 911
45 Enabling Interactive and Interoperable Semantic Music Applications 913
45.1 IM AF Standard 914
45.2 Implementation of the IM AF Encoder 915
45.3 IM AF in Sonic Visualiser 919
45.4 Future Developments and Conclusions 922
References 922
46 Digital Sensing of Musical Instruments 924
46.1 Digital Music Instruments 924
46.2 Elements of a Hyperinstrument 925
46.3 Acoustic Instrument 925
46.4 Hyperinstrument 926
46.5 Direct Sensors 926
46.6 Indirect or Surrogate Sensors 928
46.7 Instrument Case Studies 929
46.8 Application Case Studies 931
46.9 Conclusions 933
References 933
Part G Music Ethnology 935
47 Interaction Between Systematic Musicology and Research on Traditional Music 938
47.1 Background 938
47.2 Folk/Traditional Music Research 939
47.3 Comparative Musicology 940
47.4 Cognitive Approaches – Cross-Cultural Music Cognition and Cognitive Ethnomusicology 940
47.5 Anthropology of Music – Ethnomusicology – Cultural Musicology 942
47.6 New Trends 944
47.7 Function of Ethnomusicology in Systematic Musicology 945
47.8 Summary 947
References 948
48 Analytical Ethnomusicology: How We Got Out of Analysis and How to Get Back In 952
48.1 Ethnomusicology's Analytical Roots 952
48.2 The Mid-Century Pendulum Swing: The Rise of Anthropology-Based Studies 958
48.3 Analysis in Modern Ethnomusicology 965
References 973
49 Musical Systems of Sub-Saharan Africa 977
References 980
50 Music Among Ethnic Minorities in Southeast Asia 984
50.1 Singing Manners 985
50.2 The Sounds of Bamboo and Metal 989
50.3 Music and Village Life 993
50.4 Village Music and Modern Society 996
50.A Appendix: Recordings 985
References 999
51 Music Archaeology 1002
51.1 Methods 1003
51.2 Research Topics 1004
51.3 Musical Practice 1005
51.4 Music Theory 1006
51.5 Ancient Sounds 1007
51.6 Conclusion 1008
References 1009
52 The Complex Dynamics of Improvisation 1013
52.1 The Study of Improvisation 1013
52.2 The Field of Improvisation Studies 1014
52.3 Challenges in Defining Improvisation 1014
52.4 Some Contemporary Research Directions 1016
52.5 Referent-Based Improvisation 1017
52.6 Referent-Free Improvisation 1018
52.7 Final Thoughts 1020
References 1021
53 Music of Struggle and Protest in the 20th Century 1024
53.1 Historical Antecedents of Music of Protest and Struggle in the United States 1025
53.2 The Poet Walt Whitman's Influence on the Image of the Protest Singer-Songwriter 1026
53.3 Ballad Collectors, Songs of Struggle, and Versions of the American Identity 1027
53.4 The Vocal Style and Performance Practice of US Protest Music 1028
53.5 20th Century Politics and Protest Music 1030
53.6 African-American Musical Traditions and Social Protest 1031
53.7 The Conservative Reaction 1032
53.8 The Folk Music Revival and The Commercialization of Folk Music 1033
53.9 Conclusion 1035
References 1036
About the Authors 1038
Detailed Contents 1052
Subject Index 1074