Technology of Breadmaking

1 Bread - the product.- Quality characteristics of bread.- The character of bread.- Bread flavour.- Bread types.- Assessing bread quality.- External character.- Internal character.- Texture/eating quality and flavour.- Nutritional qualities of bread and its consumption.- Conclusions.- References.- 2 Breadmaking processes.- Functions of the breadmaking process.- Cell creation and control.- Major breadmaking process groups.- Straight dough bulk fermentation.- Yeast level.- Flours.- Water levels.- Optional ingredients.- Process variations.- Creation of bubble structure.- Sponge and dough.- Role of the sponge.- Formulations.- Improvers.- Flours and other ingredients.- Process variations.- Rapid processing.- Activated Dough Development (ADD).- No-time doughs with spiral mixers.- The Dutch green dough process.- Role of improvers and other ingredients in rapid processing.- Mechanical dough development.- Chorleywood Bread Process (CBP).- Breadmaking processes, bread variety and bread quality.- References.- 3 Functional ingredients.- Dough conditioners and their composition.- Ingredients.- Fats.- Soya flour.- Additives.- Emulsifiers.- Flour treatment agents.- Preservatives.- Processing aids.- Enzymes.- Alpha-amylases.- Hemicellulases.- Proteinases.- Novel enzyme systems.- Summary of small ingredients.- Bakers' yeast.- Where does yeast come from?.- Principal forms of yeast.- Other yeasts.- Biology of yeast cells.- Overview of commercial yeast production.- Baking with yeast.- Conclusion.- References.- 4 Mixing and dough processing.- Functions of mixing.- Types of mixer.- CBP-compatible mixers.- High-speed and twin-spiral mixers.- Spiral mixers.- Low-speed mixers.- Continuous mixers.- Dough transfer systems.- Dough make-up plant.- Dividing.- Dough damage during dividing.- Two-stage oil suction divider.- Extrusion dividers.- Single-stage vacuum dividers.- Rounding and premoulding.- Types and shapes of rounders.- Conical rounders.- Cylindrical rounders.- Rounding belts.- Reciprocating rounders.- Non-spherical premoulding.- Intermediate or first proving.- Pocket-type prover.- First prover charging methods.- Indexing conveyors.- Pusher in-feed systems.- Pallet in-feed systems.- Discharging.- Conveyorized first provers.- Moulding.- Sheeting action.- Curling.- Final moulding.- Four-piecing.- Cross-grain moulding.- Other sheeting and moulding systems.- Equipment for small bread and rolls.- Small bun divider moulders.- Integrated multi-lane roll plants.- References.- 5 Proving, baking and cooling.- Psychrometry.- Definitions.- The proving process.- Practical proving.- Prover checklist.- Modern prover design.- Airflow.- Ambient conditions.- Mechanical handling.- Developments in proving.- Higher proof temperatures.- Shorter proof time.- Prover to oven.- The baking process.- Crumb structure.- Yeast activity.- Starch gelatinization.- Enzyme activity.- Baked temperature.- Crust formation.- Gloss formation.- Crust crispness.- Oven break.- Practical baking.- Oven design.- Developments in baking.- Oven to cooler.- The cooling process.- Practical cooling.- Cooler design.- Developments in cooling.- Part-baked processes.- Frozen processes.- Ambient processing.- Processing economics.- Weight loss.- Life cycle costs.- References.- 6 Dough retarding and freezing.- Retarding fermented doughs.- Suitability of breadmaking processes.- Recipe and yeast level.- Retarding temperature.- Storage time.- Proving and baking.- Guidelines for retarding dough production.- Retarding pizza doughs.- Freezing fermented doughs.- Breadmaking process, recipe and yeast.- Processing and freezing doughs.- Defrosting and proving.- Freezing proved doughs.- Factors affecting the formation of white spots on retarded and frozen doughs.- Causes of quality losses with retarded and frozen doughs.- Skinning.- Crust fissures.- Ragged crust breaks.- Small volume.- White spots or small blisters.- Waxy patches.- Black spots.- Large blisters.- Dark crust colour.- Uneven or open cell structure.- Areas of dense crumb.- Principles of refrigeration.- Retarder- yeast.- Where does yeast come from?.- Principal forms of yeast.- Other yeasts.- Biology of yeast cells.- Overview of commercial yeast production.- Baking with yeast.- Conclusion.- References.- 4 Mixing and dough processing.- Functions of mixing.- Types of mixer.- CBP-compatible mixers.- High-speed and twin-spiral mixers.- Spiral mixers.- Low-speed mixers.- Continuous mixers.- Dough transfer systems.- Dough make-up plant.- Dividing.- Dough damage during dividing.- Two-stage oil suction divider.- Extrusion dividers.- Single-stage vacuum dividers.- Rounding and premoulding.- Types and shapes of rounders.- Conical rounders.- Cylindrical rounders.- Rounding belts.- Reciprocating rounders.- Non-spherical premoulding.- Intermediate or first proving.- Pocket-type prover.- First prover charging methods.- Indexing conveyors.- Pusher in-feed systems.- Pallet in-feed systems.- Discharging.- Conveyorized first provers.- Moulding.- Sheeting action.- Curling.- Final moulding.- Four-piecing.- Cross-grain moulding.- Other sheeting and moulding systems.- Equipment for small bread and rolls.- Small bun divider moulders.- Integrated multi-lane roll plants.- References.- 5 Proving, baking and cooling.- Psychrometry.- Definitions.- The proving process.- Practical proving.- Prover checklist.- Modern prover design.- Airflow.- Ambient conditions.- Mechanical handling.- Developments in proving.- Higher proof temperatures.- Shorter proof time.- Prover to oven.- The baking process.- Crumb structure.- Yeast activity.- Starch gelatinization.- Enzyme activity.- Baked temperature.- Crust formation.- Gloss formation.- Crust crispness.- Oven break.- Practical baking.- Oven design.- Developments in baking.- Oven to cooler.- The cooling process.- Practical cooling.- Cooler design.- Developments in cooling.- Part-baked processes.- Frozen processes.- Ambient processing.- Processing economics.- Weight loss.- Life cycle costs.- References.- 6 Dough retarding and freezing.- Retarding fermented doughs.- Suitability of breadmaking processes.- Recipe and yeast level.- Retarding temperature.- Storage time.- Proving and baking.- Guidelines for retarding dough production.- Retarding pizza doughs.- Freezing fermented doughs.- Breadmaking process, recipe and yeast.- Processing and freezing doughs.- Defrosting and proving.- Freezing proved doughs.- Factors affecting the formation of white spots on retarded and frozen doughs.- Causes of quality losses with retarded and frozen doughs.- Skinning.- Crust fissures.- Ragged crust breaks.- Small volume.- White spots or small blisters.- Waxy patches.- Black spots.- Large blisters.- Dark crust colour.- Uneven or open cell structure.- Areas of dense crumb.- Principles of refrigeration.- Retarder-provers and retarders.- References.- 7 Application of knowledge-based systems.- Examples of systems for use in bread technology.- Bread Faults Expert System.- Retarding Advisor.- Conclusions.- References.- 8 Baking around the world.- History.- The breadmaking process.- Flour and dough development.- Water.- Yeast.- Salt.- Other improvers.- Dividing.- Resting.- Moulding.- Panning and pans.- Final proof.- Baking.- Cooling.- Slicing and packing.- Packaging.- The international market.- References.- 9 Speciality fermented goods.- Hamburger bun.- Production rates.- Formulation.- Liquid brews and fermentation.- Mixing.- Dough transfer.- Do-flow unit.- Dividing.- AMF Pan-O-Mat.- Flour recovery and pan shaker units.- Proving.- Seed application.- Baking.- Depanning and cooling.- Part-baked breads.- Use of part-baked bread.- Manufacture of part-baked breads.- Baking nets.- Proving and baking.- Depanning and cooling.- Storage of part-baked breads.- Freezing of part-baked bread.- Second and final baking.- Quality of the final product.- The Milton Keynes Process.- Yeasted laminated products.- Formulations.- Ingredients.- Flour protein.- Fat addition to the base dough.- Sugar levels.- Yeast levels.- Laminating or roll-in fat.- Dough mixing.- Methods of adding the roll-in or laminating fat to the dough.- Lamination.- References.- 10 Bread spoilage and staling.- Microbiological spoilage of bread.- Mould spoilage.- Bacterial spoilage.- Yeast spoilage.- Control of microbiological spoilage.- Bread staling.- Crust staling.- Role of the main bread components in crumb staling.- Staling inhibitors.- Enzymes.- Emulsifiers.- Pentosans.- Alcohol.- Sugars and other solutes.- Freezing of bread.- References.- 11 Principles of dough formation.- Flour and dough components.- Starch.- Gluten.- Pentosans.- Lipids.- Water-soluble proteins.- Ash.- Flour components and water absorption.- Wheat gluten proteins.- Amino acid composition.- Gliadin.- Glutenin.- Stages in dough formation.- Hydration.- Blending.- Gluten development.- Breakdown.- Unmixing.- Air incorporation.- The gluten matrix.- Dough rheology.- Gluten structure.- Bonding between protein chains.- Gluten elasticity.- Gluten viscosity.- Extensibility.- References.- 12 Flour milling.- In the beginning.- The modern flour-milling process.- Delivery of the wheat.- Wheat testing.- Wheat storage.- The mill screenroom.- Conditioning.- The mill.- Break system.- Scratch system and bran finishers.- Scalping, grading and dusting.- Purifiers.- Reduction system.- Flour dressing.- Storage and packing.- Food safety and product protection.- Foreign bodies.- Chemical contaminants.- Biological contaminants.- Recent developments in flour milling.- Controlling flour quality and specification.- Grist versus blending.- Additives.- Ascorbic acid.- Enzymes.- Nutritional additions.- Other flour types.- Brown.- Wholemeal (wholewheat).- Self-raising flours.- Malted grain flours.- Flour testing methods.- Protein and moisture content.- Flour grade colour.- Water absorption.- Hagberg Falling number.- Flour rheology.- Farinograph.- Extensograph.- Alveograph.- Use of testing equipment.- Glossary of milling terms used in this chapter.- References.- 13 Other cereals in breadmaking.- Rye bread.- Sour dough methods.- Doughmaking.- Baking.- American rye breads.- Keeping qualities of rye breads.- Triticale.- Other grains and seeds in bread.- Multi-grain breads.- Modifying nutritional properties with non-wheat sources.- Malted barley.- Wheatless breads.- Formation of cake batters.- Bread without wheat.- Unleavened breads.- Recipes for unleavened breads.- Flours for unleavened breads.- Conclusions.- References.