The Psychology of Habit (eBook)

Professor Bas Verplanken graduated and obtained his PhD at the University of Leiden, The Netherlands, where he worked as a Research Fellow and Lecturer from 1980-1990. From 1990-1998 he was a Lecturer and senior lecturer at the University of Nijmegen. From 1998 to 2006 he was a professor at the University of Tromsø, Norway. In 2006 he joined the University of Bath, where he was Head of Department of Psychology from 2010-2016. His research interests are in attitude-behaviour relations and change, applied in the domains of environmental, health, and consumer psychology. He has developed a special interest in habits. He published on a variety of topics, including risk perception, environmental concern, unhealthy eating, travel mode choice, values, self-esteem, body image, worrying, mindfulness, impulsive buying, behaviour change, and sustainable lifestyles. He served as an associate editor of the British Journal of Social Psychology and Psychology and Health.

Preface 5
Contents 7
Contributors 9
About the Editor 12
Chapter 1: Introduction 13
Defining Habit 15
What, How, Why? 18
References 21
Part I: Theory, Measurement, and Mechanisms 23
Chapter 2: Defining Habit in Psychology 24
Historic Definitions of Habit 25
Modern Definitions 27
Features of Habit Automaticity 28
Context Dependence 29
Goal Independence 31
Other Features of Automaticity 32
Habit Measurement 32
Self–Report Measures 33
Behavioural, Implicit, and Ecological Assessment Methods 34
Conclusions 36
References 36
Chapter 3: The Measurement of Habit 41
What Makes a Measure ‘Good’? 42
Predictive Validity 44
Discriminant and Convergent Validity 45
Reliability 46
Considering Validity of Prevalent Habit Measures 47
Past Behaviour 47
Frequency–In–Context Measures 48
Self–Report Habit Index 49
Habit Index of Negative Thinking 50
Self–Report Behavioral Automaticity Index 51
Future Directions for Habit Measurement 52
Conclusions 53
References 55
Chapter 4: Understanding the Formation of Human Habits: An Analysis of Mechanisms of Habitual Behaviour 60
Features of Automaticity in Habitual Behaviour 61
Habits Are Efficient 62
Habits Are Independent of Intention 62
Habits Are Independent of Awareness 63
Habits Are Uncontrollable 64
The Evolvement of Habitual Mechanisms 65
Fully Automatic S-R Behaviour 66
Habitual Skills 66
Goal Dependency of Habits 67
The Role of Motivation in Habitual Behaviour 68
The Role of Motivation in S–R Behaviour 69
The Role of Motivation in Habitual Skills 69
The Role of Motivation in Goal–Directed Habitual Skills 70
The Role of Goals in Habit Formation 72
Future Directions for Research on Habits 73
References 76
Chapter 5: Habit Mechanisms and Behavioural Complexity 79
Introduction 79
Habit and Behaviour 79
What Is Complexity? 80
Classifications of Behaviour 80
Predicting Onestep Hedonic Behaviours 81
Predicting Multistep Hedonic Behaviours 83
Predicting Onestep Distal Benefit Behaviours 83
Predicting Multistep Distal Behaviours 84
Interventions in Habitual Behaviours 85
Interventions Targeting Onestep Hedonic Behaviours 86
Interventions Targeting Multistep Hedonic Behaviours 86
Interventions Targeting Onestep Distal Benefit Behaviours 86
Interventions Targeting Multistep Distal Benefit Behaviour 87
Behaviour Change Techniques Used in Interventions 88
Conclusions and Future Directions 88
References 95
Chapter 6: Physical Activity Habit: Complexities and Controversies 99
Introduction 99
Overview of the Habit Concept 100
Habit and Physical Activity Research 102
Advancing Habit Research in Physical Activity 103
Conceptions of Habit for Physical Activity 103
The Relationship Between Motivation and Habit in Physical Activity 106
Forming Physical Activity Habits 109
Future Directions and Conclusions 110
References 113
Chapter 7: Technology Habits: Progress, Problems, and Prospects 118
What Are Tech Habits? 119
A Short History: Progress in Tech Habit Research 119
Measurement Challenges 121
Conceptualization Challenges: Jingles, Jangles, Clatters, and Clamors 122
Causal Mechanisms of Overuse 123
Antecedents and Consequences 124
What Is Special About Tech Habits? 124
Cue Properties 126
Context Properties 127
Outcome Properties 127
From Problems to Prospects 128
Conclusion 131
References 132
Chapter 8: The Strategic Effects of State-Dependent Consumer Preferences: The Roles of Habits and Variety Seeking 138
Introduction 138
Key Terminology 139
How Habits Are Modelled 140
Measuring State Dependence 140
What Type of State Dependence Do Consumers Exhibit? 142
State Dependence Over Products or Attributes 144
Pricing Implications 145
The Impact of Inertia on Pricing 145
The Impact of Variety Seeking on Pricing 148
Pricing in a Channel 150
Behavioural-Based Price Discrimination 151
Non-Price Strategic Implications 152
What Product Should Firms Offer 152
Advertising 153
Markets with Adverse Selection 154
Conclusion 154
References 155
Part II: Breaking and Creating Habits 158
Chapter 9: Habit Modification 159
Habit Disorders 159
Types of Nervous Habits 160
Functions of Habit Behaviours 161
Treatment for Nervous Habits 163
Habit Reversal 163
Other Behavioural Interventions 167
Summary 169
References 170
Chapter 10: Breaking Habits Using Implementation Intentions 174
Implementation Intentions 175
Using Implementation Intentions to Break Unwanted Habits 177
Empirical Evidence for Implementation Intentions Targeting Unwanted Habits 178
Underlying Mechanisms of Implementation Intentions Targeting Unwanted Habits 180
Other Types of Counter-Habitual Implementation Intentions 181
Simple Plans in a Complex World 182
Requirements for Implementation Intentions in General 183
Formulating Precise If–Then Plans 183
Ensuring High Motivation 183
Requirements for Implementation Intentions When Changing Habits 184
Finding the Critical Cue 184
Strengthening the Link Between ‘If’ and ‘Then’ 185
The Inflexibility of a Single If–Then Plan 186
Staying Motivated with Minor Changes 187
Concluding Thoughts 188
References 189
Chapter 11: Cracks in the Wall: Habit Discontinuities as Vehicles for Behaviour Change 194
Introduction 194
Changing Circumstances, Changing Behaviour 195
Testing the Habit Discontinuity Hypothesis 197
Unpacking the Habit Discontinuity Hypothesis 200
Unfreezing Old Habits: Kurt Lewin’s Insights 200
Information Acquisition and Processing 202
Value Activation or Change 203
Final Thoughts 205
References 206
Chapter 12: Modelling Habit Formation and Its Determinants 211
Modelling Habit Formation 212
A Framework for Understanding Habit Formation and Its Determinants 214
Factors Determining the Development of Habit Associations 217
Cue-Related Factors 217
Planning 217
Cue Salience and Stability 217
Behaviour-Related Factors 219
Consistency 219
Complexity 219
Reward Value 220
Person–Related Factors 221
Motivation Type 221
Stress and Cortisol 222
Self-Control 222
Habit Substitution 223
Conclusion: Directions for Future Habit Formation Research 224
References 230
Chapter 13: Using N-of-1 Methods to Explore Habit Formation 234
Introduction 234
The Between-Person Approach Versus Within-Person Approach for Studying Health Behaviour 235
Rationale for Using N-of-1 Methods for Exploring Habit Formation Theory 236
N-of-1 Observational Design: Opportunities for Understanding Habit Formation 237
Case Study 1: N-of-1 Observational Study Evaluating Predictors of Weight Loss Maintenance 238
Case Study 2: N-of-1 Observational Study of the Relationship Between Stress and Exercise 238
N-of-1 Trial Design: Opportunities for Assessing Habit Interventions 239
Case Study 3: N-of-1 Trial of Light Therapy for Depressive Symptoms in Cancer Survivors 240
Case Study 4: N-of-1 Trial of Behaviour Change Techniques for Increasing Walking Among Older People 241
Designing Robust N-of-1 Trials and Applying N-of-1 Trial Approach to Habit Theories 242
Operationalizing N-of-1 Approaches to Testing of Habit Theories Using Novel Technology 244
Summary 245
References 247
Chapter 14: Creating and Breaking Habit in Healthcare Professional Behaviours to Improve Healthcare and Health 249
The Role of Habit in Predicting the Behaviour of Healthcare Professionals 249
Theoretical Approaches to Understanding Habit in Healthcare Professionals 251
Reflective Impulsive Model (RIM) 252
Fuzzy Trace Theory (FTT) 254
Novice to Expert Theory (NET) 255
What Does Each of the Theories Uniquely Contribute? 255
Measuring Habit in Healthcare Professionals 256
Strategies for Creating and Breaking Habit in Healthcare Professionals 257
Creating Habit in Healthcare Professionals 257
Breaking Habit in Healthcare Professionals 258
Next Steps 261
Conclusion 262
References 264
Chapter 15: Habits in Depression: Understanding and Intervention 268
Rumination as a Mental Habit 269
Treating Rumination-as-a-Habit 272
Lifestyle Habits and Depression 277
Conclusion 280
References 281
Chapter 16: The Role of Habits in Maladaptive Behaviour and Therapeutic Interventions 286
Habits in Health- and Clinical Psychology 287
Definitions of Habit in Health- and Clinical Psychology 287
Measurements of Habits in Health and Clinical Psychology 287
Self-Report Measures 287
Outcome-Devaluation Paradigm 288
Conclusions 289
Habits in Mental Disorders 290
Targeting Habits in Therapeutic Interventions 292
Changing Maladaptive Behaviours Through Implementation Intentions 293
Research into Implementation Intentions in Clinical Samples 294
(Disorder-Related) Indicators for Effectiveness of Implementation Intentions 294
Incorporating Implementation Intentions into Cognitive-Behavioural Treatment (CBT) 295
Conclusion 297
References 300
Chapter 17: Recovery Habits: A Habit Perspective on Recovery from Substance Use Disorder 305
Introduction 305
Known Predictors of Sustained Recovery 306
Habits Learned in Treatment 308
“12-Step” Programs 308
Pilot Study 309
Participants 310
Results 310
Discussion 312
Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy 312
Mindfulness 314
Other Healthy Habits as Potential Recovery Habits 315
Sleep 316
Physical Exercise 316
Conclusions 318
References 319
Part III: Critical Questions and Prospects 323
Chapter 18: A Critical Review of Habit Theory of Drug Dependence 324
Introduction 324
Defining Goal-Directed and Habitual Instrumental Behaviour 324
Effect of Drug Exposure on Outcome-Devaluation in Animals 325
Criticisms of Animal Outcome-Devaluation Studies 326
Outcome-Devaluation Studies with Human Drug Users 327
Two-Stage Task in Human Drug Users 329
Interpreting Human Evidence for Habit in Addiction: The Role of Explicit Contingency Knowledge 330
Excessive Goal-Directed Drug-Seeking as an Alternative to Habit Theory 331
Implications for Treatment 334
Conclusion 334
References 335
Chapter 19: Habits and Autism: Restricted, Repetitive Patterns of Behaviour and Thinking in Autism 341
Classification and Taxonomy 342
Measurement of Higher-Order and Lower-Order Repetitive Behaviours 344
Developmental Issues 344
‘Normal’ and ‘Pathological’ Levels of Repetitive Behaviour 345
Functions of Repetitive Behaviour 346
Interventions for Repetitive Behaviours 347
Theory 348
Habits 350
A Lack of Awareness 351
Being Mentally Efficient 351
Sometimes Difficult to Control 351
A Lack of Conscious Intent 352
Framework for Habit Change 353
Identify the Routine 353
Experiment with Rewards 353
Isolate the Cue 354
References 356
Chapter 20: Mind Wandering: More than a Bad Habit 360
Capturing the Wandering Mind: Tools and Types 361
Is Mind Wandering a Mental Habit? 362
Does Mind Wandering Resemble a Stimulus–Response Relationship? 362
Mind Wandering and Automaticity 363
Mental Efficiency 364
Lack of Awareness 365
Lack of Conscious Intent 366
Lack of Control 366
Individual Differences in Habitual Mind Wandering and Patterns of Thought 367
Extreme Mind Wandering Habits 368
Conclusion and Future Directions 369
References 372
Chapter 21: The Automaticity of Habitual Behaviours: Inconvenient Questions 376
Resources (Not) Used Up 376
Inevitability 378
(Un)Intentionality 380
The Strength of Different Kinds of Evidence 382
Dissociations 382
A Lack of an Effect on Behavioural Intentions 383
Dissociations Revisited: Null Hypothesis Significance Testing 385
Mediation 387
Where Should Researchers Concerned with Habitual Processes Go from Here? 388
Conclusion 389
References 391
Chapter 22: Progress and Prospects in Habit Research 393
Motivation and Habit 393
Progress and Prospects in Habit Measurement 398
Habit, Willpower and Self-Control 401
Conclusion 402
References 403
Index 406