Flash Lamp Annealing (eBook)

Preface 6
Acknowledgements 7
References 8
Contents 9
Acronyms 12
Symbols 14
1 Introduction 18
1.1 Historical Remarks 19
1.2 The Thermal Cycle 24
1.3 Short Time Annealing 26
References 28
2 The Technology of Flash Lamp Annealing 32
2.1 Basic Structure of an FLA Tool 32
2.2 Components of a Flash Lamp 36
2.2.1 Dimensions and Gas Filling 37
2.2.2 Electrodes 38
2.2.3 The Envelope 40
2.2.4 Cooling 42
2.3 Plasma Discharge 43
2.3.1 Trigger Pulse and Initial Streamer Formation 43
2.3.2 Arc Expansion 46
2.3.3 Plasma Properties in the Wall-Stabilized Regime 48
2.3.4 The Post-discharge Period 54
2.4 Electric Operation 55
2.4.1 Electric Characteristics of a Flash Lamp 55
2.4.2 Circuitries 56
2.4.3 Modelling of a Single RLC Section Circuit 59
2.4.4 Active Pulse Shaping 62
2.5 Optical Output 64
2.5.1 The Plasma Spectrum 64
2.5.2 Transparency and Radiation Pattern 66
2.5.3 Time-Resolved Optical Properties 68
2.5.4 Shaping the Spectral Output 68
2.6 Flash Lamp Lifetime 72
2.6.1 Single and Multiple Flash Operation 72
2.6.2 Lamp Failure 73
2.6.3 Lamp Degradation 77
2.7 Layout of FLA Tools 79
2.7.1 From Sheet-to-Sheet to Roll-to-Roll Processes 79
2.7.2 Flash-Assisted Deposition 81
References 84
3 Process Management 88
3.1 Temperature Measurement 88
3.1.1 Pyrometry 89
3.1.2 Temperature Measurement of Semiconductors 91
3.1.3 Temperature Measurement During Annealing of Non-semiconductors 101
3.1.4 True Temperature Measurement 103
3.2 Temperature Simulations 106
3.2.1 Mathematical Background 106
3.2.2 Chamber Wall Reflection 111
3.2.3 Temperature Profiles 115
3.2.4 Heat Dissipation 121
3.3 Homogeneity 123
3.3.1 The Homogeneity of Irradiation 123
3.3.2 Pattern Effects 128
3.4 Thermal Stress 131
3.4.1 Silicon 131
3.4.2 Glassy Substrates and Thin Films 136
3.5 Further Effects 138
References 142
4 Semiconductor Applications 147
4.1 Defect Engineering 147
4.1.1 Defect Evolution During Annealing 147
4.1.2 Boron Diffusion in Si 149
4.1.3 Studies Related to Flash Lamp Annealing 151
4.2 Doping 152
4.2.1 Ultra-Shallow Junctions in Silicon 152
4.2.2 Hyperdoping in Silicon 160
4.2.3 Doping and Superconductivity in Germanium 167
4.2.4 Doping of Silicon Carbide 179
4.2.5 Doping of III–V Compound Semiconductors 184
4.2.6 Diluted Magnetic Semiconductors 190
4.3 Crystallization 194
4.3.1 Non-equilibrium Crystallization Modes 194
4.3.2 Thin Films of Amorphous Silicon 202
4.3.3 Silicon Compound Semiconductors 206
4.4 Semiconductor Nanostructures 210
4.4.1 Group IV Nanocluster 210
4.4.2 Integration of III–V Nanocrystals into Silicon 212
4.4.3 Nanowires 224
References 234
5 Beyond Semiconductors 249
5.1 Dielectric Thin Films 249
5.1.1 High-k Materials 249
5.1.2 Rare Earth Doping of SiO2 251
5.2 Photovoltaic Applications 253
5.2.1 Mono- and Polycrystalline Solar Cells 254
5.2.2 Thin Film Solar Cells 258
5.3 Transparent Conducting Oxides 260
5.3.1 Zinc Oxide 260
5.3.2 Titanium Oxide 263
5.3.3 Indium Tin Oxide 264
5.3.4 Other TCOs and Beyond 266
5.4 Metallic Films 267
5.4.1 Annealing of Thin Metal Films 268
5.4.2 Material Property Engineering 269
5.4.3 Silicides 269
5.4.4 Printed Electronics 271
5.4.5 Further Applications 272
5.5 Flexible Substrates 273
5.5.1 State of the Art 274
5.5.2 Ink-Environment Interaction 285
5.5.3 Ink-Substrate Interaction 287
References 289
Index 299