Printing of Graphene and Related 2D Materials (eBook)

The authors are members of the Hybrid Nanomaterials Engineering Group at the Cambridge Graphene Centre, Cambridge University Engineering Department, led by Dr. Tawfique Hasan.  Chris Jones joined Cambridge Graphene Centre as an Inward Knowledge Transfer Fellow and also works at Novalia Ltd.

Preface 5
Contents 7
1 Introduction 10
1.1 Functional Printing Technologies 12
1.2 Graphene and Related 2D Materials 13
1.3 Printing of Graphene and Related 2D Materials 14
1.4 Economic Landscape of Graphene and Related 2D Materials 15
1.4.1 The 2D Material Value Chain 18
1.4.2 Significance of Graphene Inks, Paints and Coatings 20
1.5 Conclusion 21
References 22
2 Structures, Properties and Applications of 2D Materials 27
2.1 The 2D Material Family 27
2.2 Graphene 29
2.3 Transition Metal Dichalcogenides (TMDs) 36
2.4 Black Phosphorus 40
2.5 Hexagonal Boron Nitride (h-BN) 43
2.6 Transition Metal Carbides and/or Carbonitrides (MXenes) 43
2.7 Less Commonly Studied 2D Materials 46
2.7.1 Mica 46
2.7.2 Metal Oxides 47
2.7.3 Other 2D Materials 48
2.8 Conclusion 48
References 49
3 2D Material Production Methods 60
3.1 Non-Solution-Based Methods for 2D Material Production 60
3.1.1 Mechanical Cleavage 61
3.1.2 Substrate-Bound High Temperature Growth 61
3.1.3 Plasma Cracking of Hydrocarbons 65
3.2 Solution-Based Methods for 2D Material Production 66
3.2.1 Exfoliation through Intercalation 67
3.2.2 Liquid-Phase Exfoliation 71
Ultrasound Assisted Liquid Phase Exfoliation (UALPE) 71
High-Shear Mixing 72
Microfluidisation 74
Ball Milling 74
Exfoliation in Pure Solvents 76
Exfoliation in Solvent Mixtures 78
Exfoliation Using Dispersants 78
3.2.3 Post-Processing 80
3.3 Material and Dispersion Characterisation Methods 82
3.3.1 Optical Absorption Spectroscopy 82
3.3.2 Characterisation via Microscopy 84
Atomic Force Microscopy 84
Scanning Electron Microscopy 84
Transmission Electron Microscopy 85
3.3.3 Spectroscopic Characterisation of 2D Material Dispersions 87
Raman Spectroscopy 88
Raman Spectroscopy of Graphene 88
Raman Spectroscopy of Transition Metal Dichalcogenides 89
Raman Spectroscopy of Black Phosphorus 90
Raman Spectroscopy of Hexagonal Boron Nitride 92
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 92
X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 94
Photoluminescence spectroscopy 95
3.3.4 Measuring Crystallographic Structure of Flakes 97
3.4 Conclusion 98
References 98
4 2D Ink Design 109
4.1 A Brief History of Inks 109
4.2 Basic Ink Composition and Formulations 110
4.2.1 2D Material Ink Systems 113
4.3 Viscosity and Rheology of Ink Systems 113
4.3.1 Ink Viscosity 113
Characterisation of Ink Viscosity 115
4.3.2 Rheological Flow in Different Fluid Systems 117
Newtonian Flow 117
Non-Newtonian Flow 118
Characterisation of Ink Rheology 119
Coaxial Rotational Rheometers 121
4.4 Ink Production 121
4.4.1 Creation of an Optimal Millbase 121
4.4.2 Ink Dispersion 122
Dispersion Machinery 123
4.4.3 Letdown with Ink Varnish 125
4.5 Ink–Substrate Interactions 126
4.5.1 Wetting and Spreading of Inks on Surfaces 126
4.5.2 Theories of Adhesion 128
Mechanical Theory of Adhesion 128
Diffusion Theory of Adhesion 129
Adsorption Theory of Adhesion 129
Factors Affecting Adhesion 129
Improving Adhesion 130
4.6 Ink Formulation Optimisation 130
4.6.1 One Variable at a Time (OVAT) 132
4.6.2 Design of Experiments (DOE) 132
4.7 Conclusion 135
References 136
5 Printing Technologies 141
5.1 Common Printing Parameters 143
5.1.1 Viscosity Effects on Ink 143
5.1.2 Ink Wetting of Surface 146
5.2 Inkjet Printing 149
5.2.1 Inkjet Printing Principles 152
Stable Droplet Formation and Jetting 152
Droplet Impact and Spreading 153
5.2.2 Current 2D Material Inkjet Ink Formulations 156
5.3 Screen Printing 158
5.3.1 Screen Printing Principles 161
5.3.2 Current 2D Material Screen Ink Formulations 164
5.4 Gravure and Flexographic Printing 165
5.4.1 Gravure Printing 166
5.4.2 Flexographic Printing 173
5.4.3 Gravure and Flexography Printing Ink Formulations 175
5.5 3D Printing 177
5.5.1 Fused Deposition Modelling 177
5.5.2 Recent Demonstrations of 3D Printing of 2D Materials 178
5.6 Conclusion 179
References 179
6 Applications of Printed 2D Materials 185
6.1 Conductive Inks 186
6.1.1 Transparent Conductive Electrodes 188
6.1.2 Opaque Conductive Inks 190
6.2 Printed (Opto)Electronics and Photonics 193
6.3 Printed Sensors 197
6.3.1 Chemical Sensors 197
6.3.2 Temperature Sensors 199
6.3.3 Strain, Pressure and Touch Sensors 200
6.3.4 Biosensors 201
6.4 Printed Energy Storage 203
6.4.1 Batteries 203
6.4.2 Supercapacitors 205
6.4.3 3D Printing of 2D Materials for Energy Storage 206
6.5 Applications in Membranes and Barriers 208
6.5.1 Barrier 209
6.5.2 EMI Shielding 210
6.5.3 Membrane 211
6.6 Future Development Possibilities for 2D Material Printed Applications 211
References 214
Index 223