Desert Olive Oil Cultivation (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Desert Olive Oil Cultivation 4
Copyright 5
Contents 6
Foreword 14
Preface 16
Part 1: Introduction to Desert Olive Oil 18
Chapter 1: The current status of and major trends in the world olive oil industry 20
1.1 The current status of the olive oil industry 20
1.1.1 World olive oil production 21
1.1.2 Olive oil consumption 22
1.1.3 Olive oil trade 25
1.2 Market-differentiating trends in the olive oil industry 28
1.2.1 Premium olive oil quality 28
1.2.2 Olive oil, health trends and the Mediterranean diet 30
1.2.3 Olive oil as a preventive medicine 31
1.2.4 Organic olive oil production 36
1.2.5 Varietals and geographical trends 36
1.2.6 Processing-related trends 37
1.2.7 Large-scale expansion into desert environments 37
References 38
Further reading 38
Chapter 2: Why olives and deserts? 40
2.1 Availability of land due to global climate changes and desertification 40
2.2 Genetic and physio-morphological adaptations of the olive tree to desert conditions 41
2.2.1 Ability to collect water from the soil 43
2.2.2 Leaf anatomy protects against water loss 43
2.2.3 Water hydraulic system of the olive tree 44
2.2.4 Ability to control transpiration 44
2.3 Limited insect pest problems due to isolation and low atmospheric humidity 45
2.4 Development of new biotechnologies for intensive cultivation 45
2.5 Economic sustainability 46
2.6 Ecological sustainability 46
References 46
Further reading 47
Chapter 3: Key characteristics of the desert environment 48
3.1 What is a desert? 48
3.2 Desert climates 49
3.2.1 Trade-wind deserts 50
3.2.2 Mid-latitude deserts 50
3.2.3 Rain-shadow deserts 51
3.2.4 Coastal deserts 51
3.2.5 Polar deserts 51
3.3 Water in deserts 51
3.3.1 Surface water 52
3.3.2 Subsurface water 52
3.4 Soil in deserts 53
3.5 Solar irradiance in deserts 54
3.6 Desertification 55
3.7 Some world desert environments 56
3.7.1 The Negev Desert 57
3.7.2 The arid region of Southern Spain 59
3.7.3 Australian deserts 61
3.7.4 Argentinean deserts 63
3.7.5 The California Desert 64
3.7.6 The Sahara Desert 66
3.7.7 The Turkestan Desert 67
3.7.8 The Gobi Desert 68
References 69
Further reading 69
Chapter 4: The history of olive oil cultivation in the desert 72
4.1 Cultivation of olive oil in dry highland areas in ancient times 72
4.2 Expansion of olive oil cultivation in the Mediterranean region 74
4.3 Olive oil cultivation beyond the Mediterranean region 76
4.4 Olive oil cultivation in Central Asia and in the eastern hemisphere 76
4.5 Olive oil uses and trade in the ancient Middle East 77
References 80
Part 2: Biotechnologies and Olive Oil Cultivation 82
Chapter 5: Environmentally friendly desert agro-biotechnologies 84
5.1 The soils of the Negev Desert 85
5.1.1 Geomorphology and mapping of Negev soils 85
5.1.2 Analysis of Negev soils 85
5.2 Irrigation in the Negev Desert 85
5.2.1 National water delivery plan for Israel 85
5.2.2 Hydrological mapping of Negev aquifers 86
5.2.3 Analysis of natural water resources in the Negev 89
5.2.4 Rainwater analysis 90
5.2.5 Water-harvesting technologies in the Negev 90
5.2.6 Floodwater catchments in the Negev 90
5.2.7 Economic aspects of underground water utilization 90
5.2.8 Reuse of wastewater: an Israeli experience 92
5.3 Advanced biotechnologies for olive cultivation under saline conditions 96
5.3.1 Mixing the irrigation water 96
5.3.2 Irrigation practices 96
5.3.3 Soil quality improvement in the Negev 99
References 101
Further reading 103
Chapter 6: Biotechnologies for intensive production of olives in desert conditions 104
6.1 General description of the olive plant 104
6.2 Establishment of olive orchards in desert conditions 107
6.2.1 Production of planting materials 107
6.2.2 Design and preparation of olive orchards 111
6.3 Cultural practices for the growth and development of olive trees in desert conditions 124
6.3.1 Training and pruning 124
6.3.2 Weed control 127
6.3.3 Root-zone soil buffering 128
6.3.4 Alternate bearing and fruit thinning 135
6.3.5 Fertilization 136
6.3.6 Pest and disease management 144
References 148
Further reading 150
Chapter 7: Desert-suitable genetic material 152
7.1 Genetic diversity and reproductive characteristics of the olive tree 152
7.2 Common olive varieties 154
7.2.1 Italian 154
7.2.2 Spanish and Portuguese 160
7.2.3 Greek 164
7.2.4 French 166
7.2.5 Turkish and Syrian 168
7.2.6 Lebanese, Israeli, Palestinian and Jordanian 168
7.2.7 North African 170
7.2.8 California 171
7.2.9 South American 172
7.3 Selection of genetic materials 172
7.3.1 Molecular markers for genetic fingerprinting of olives 173
7.4 Evaluation of desert-suitable olive varieties of various origins 178
7.4.1 Evaluation of locally grown varieties 179
7.4.2 Evaluation of European varieties 181
7.4.3 Evaluation of Spanish semi-arid varieties 189
7.4.4 Evaluation of Central Asian varieties 193
7.5 Summary 198
References 198
Further reading 200
Chapter 8: Olive-harvesting biotechnologies 202
8.1 Olive fruit maturation 203
8.1.1 Olive oil yield, quality and fruit maturation 203
8.1.2 Olive fruit pigmentation and maturation 204
8.2 New technologies for olive-harvesting automation and management 207
8.2.1 Prediction of optimal olive-harvest timing 207
8.2.2 Determination of oil content in olive fruits 214
8.3 Efficient mechanical harvesting 223
8.3.1 Available mechanical systems 225
8.3.2 Factors affecting mechanical harvesting 226
8.3.3 Improvements in mechanical harvesting 230
References 233
Further reading 235
Chapter 9: Oil extraction and processing biotechnologies 238
9.1 Olive oil extraction technologies 240
9.1.1 Traditional method 240
9.1.2 Modern methods 242
9.1.3 Extraction by selective filtration (Sinolea) 246
9.1.4 Summary 247
9.2 Bio-enzymatic technology for improved olive oil extraction 248
9.3 Negev olive oil extraction studies 250
9.3.1 Oil potential of Negev-grown olives 252
9.4 Decantation, bottling and shelf-life, with an emphasis on Negev Desert conditions 256
References 258
Further reading 258
Chapter 10: Olive-mill wastes: treatment and product biotechnologies 260
10.1 Olive-mill wastes and their characteristics 260
10.2 Treatment of vegetation wastewater 262
10.2.1 Chemical treatment 262
10.2.2 Biological treatment 263
10.2.3 Combined treatment 265
10.3 Uses of olive-mill waste 267
10.3.1 Production of bio-fertilizers 267
10.3.2 Production of compost 268
10.3.3 Production of feed additives 269
10.3.4 Production of antioxidant food supplements 269
10.3.5 Production of phytohormones 269
10.3.6 Production of biopolymers 269
References 270
Further reading 271
Chapter 11: Olive-oil quality biotechnologies 274
11.1 Composition of olive oil 275
11.1.1 Triacylglycerols 275
11.1.2 Fatty acids 275
11.1.3 Minor constituents 277
11.2 Regulation of olive oils and olive oil quality 278
11.2.1 IOC standards 279
11.3 Oil quality and purity parameters 283
11.3.1 Basic quality parameters 283
11.3.2 Other quality parameters 292
11.4 Effects of the desert environment on olive oil quality 305
11.4.1 Fatty acid profile 307
11.4.2 Acidity and peroxide values 308
11.4.3 Tocopherols and polyphenols 309
11.4.4 Phytosterols 310
11.4.5 TAG composition 312
11.4.6 Organoleptic qualities 313
11.5 Summary 315
References 316
Further reading 319
Chapter 12: Non-conventional olive oil industries: products and biotechnologies 320
12.1 Cosmetics 320
12.2 Pharmaceuticals 324
12.3 Food supplements 329
12.4 Other products 331
12.4.1 Bio-fertilizers and/or compost 331
12.4.2 Alternative energy 333
References 341
Further reading 343
Part 3: Desert Olive Oil Branding 346
Chapter 13: Conventional desert olive oil cultivation: case study 348
13.1 Re’em: a conventional intensively cultivated desert olive farm 348
13.2 Fish culture: a supplement at Re’em Farm 348
13.3 The olive plantation at Re’em 350
13.4 Major management practices 352
13.4.1 Water management 352
13.4.2 Soil management 352
13.4.3 Pest management 353
13.4.4 Weed management 355
13.4.5 Harvesting and oil extraction 356
13.5 A successful approach to intensive olive cultivation in the desert environment 358
References 359
Further reading 360
Chapter 14: Bio-organic desert olive oil cultivation: case study 362
14.1 Neot Smadar: a model bio-organic farm on the most arid land 362
14.2 Organic farming 362
14.2.1 The principles of organic production and processing as defined by IFOAM (1998) 363
14.3 Requirements for organic agriculture in Israel 364
14.4 The olive plantation at Neot Smadar 365
14.5 Major management practices 366
14.5.1 Water resource management 366
14.5.2 Pest management 368
14.5.3 Determination of harvest timing 369
14.6 Marketing of organic olive products 369
References 371
Chapter 15: Economic aspects of desert olive oil cultivation 372
15.1 Background 372
15.2 Economic aspects of conventional desert olive plot establishment and production 373
15.2.1 General assumptions in this study 373
15.2.2 Establishment costs 374
15.2.3 Production (operation) costs and incomes 378
15.3 Economic comparison and outline of organic and conventional intensive desert olive cultivation 380
Reference 382
Chapter 16: Marketing of desert olive oil 384
16.1 Olive oil and global marketing 384
16.2 Marketing strategies in major EU countries 386
16.3 Marketing strategies in Australia 394
16.4 The future of olive oil marketing 395
16.5 Factors affecting consumer preferences 395
References 397
Chapter 17: Developing the Negev Desert olive oil brand name 400
Part 4: Summary 404
Chapter 18: The future of desert olive oil, and concluding remarks 406
Index 412