Building Services Engineering

Professor Tarik Al-Shemmeri is an Independent Consultant and a Visiting Lecturer to the School of Chemical Engineering at the University of Birmingham, UK. He has lectured, researched and published many research papers and text books in the area of thermo-fluids, renewable energy, and power generation. Neil Packer is a Chartered Engineer who has taught Mechanical Engineering to students in the Higher Education sector for over 25 years. He has acted as an Energy Consultant on a range of low carbon projects in the UK, mainland Europe, and North Africa.

Preface xiii

Structure of the Book xv

Notation xxi

1 Ambient Air 1
1.1 Overview 1
Learning Outcomes 1
1.2 Why Ambient Air Is Important? 1
1.3 Air Composition 2
1.4 Gas Mixtures 3
1.4.1 Mixture Laws 3
1.4.2 Dalton's Law 4
1.4.3 Gibbs-Dalton Law 5
1.4.4 Ideal Gas Behaviour and the Equation of State 6
1.5 Air Thermodynamic and Transport Properties 7
1.5.1 Gas Density 7
1.5.2 Dynamic Viscosity 7
1.5.3 Specific Heat Capacity 9
1.5.4 Thermal Conductivity 10
1.5.5 Heat Transfer Coefficient 10
1.5.6 Combinations of Properties 11
1.6 Important Energy Concepts 12
1.6.1 First Law of Thermodynamics 12
1.6.2 Thermal Energy 13
1.6.3 Rate of Thermodynamic Work 14
1.6.4 Nonthermal Energy 14
1.6.5 Non-flow Conditions 15
1.6.6 Entropy 15
1.7 Worked Examples 16
1.8 Tutorial Problems 21

2 The Thermodynamics of the Human Machine and Thermal Comfort 25
2.1 Overview 25
Learning Outcomes 25
2.2 Thermal Comfort of Human Beings 26
2.3 Energy Balance of the Human Body 26
2.4 Metabolism ( ? M) and Physical Work ( ? W) 27
2.4.1 Latent Heat Loss 28
2.4.1.1 Heat Loss by Perspiration 28
2.4.1.2 Heat Loss by Respiration 29
2.4.2 Sensible Heat Loss 29
2.4.2.1 Heat Loss by Conduction 29
2.4.2.2 Heat Loss by Convection 30
2.4.2.3 Heat Loss by Radiation 30
2.5 Optimum Comfort Temperature 31
2.6 Estimation of Thermal Comfort 31
2.7 Worked Examples 33
2.8 Tutorial Problems 41

3 Ventilation 45
3.1 Overview 45
Learning Outcomes 45
3.2 Concentrations, Contaminants, and the Decay Equation 46
3.2.1 Concentrations 46
3.2.2 The Decay Equation 47
3.3 Natural Ventilation 48
3.3.1 Stack Effect Ventilation 48
3.3.2 Wind Effect Ventilation 50
3.3.3 Combined Wind and Stack Effect Ventilation 51
3.3.4 Infiltration 52
3.4 Mechanical Ventilation 52
3.5 Fan Types and Selection 53
3.5.1 Selection of Fans 54
3.6 Duct Sizing and Fan Matching 56
3.6.1 Duct Pressure Losses 56
3.6.2 Selecting Duct Sizes 57
3.6.3 Fan Sizing 60
3.6.4 Fan-System Characteristics and Matching 61
3.6.5 Fan Laws 62
3.7 Worked Examples 63
3.8 Tutorial Problems 73

4 Psychrometry and Air Conditioning 75
4.1 Overview 75
Learning Outcomes 75
4.2 Psychrometric Properties 75
4.2.1 Pressure 75
4.2.2 Temperature 76
4.2.3 Water Content 76
4.2.4 Condensation 77
4.2.5 Energy Content 77
4.2.6 Mass Flow and Volume 78
4.3 The Psychrometric Chart 78
4.4 Air-Conditioning Processes 80
4.5 Air-Conditioning Cycles 86
4.5.1 Air-Conditioning Plant Variations 87
4.6 Worked Examples 91
4.7 Tutorial Problems 103

5 The Building Envelope 107
5.1 Overview 107
Learning Outcomes 107
5.2 Variation in Meteorological Conditions 107
5.2.1 Temperature and Humidity 108
5.2.2 Wind 108
5.2.3 Solar Irradiation 108
5.3 Heat Transfer 109
5.3.1 Conduction 109
5.3.2 Convection 111
5.3.3 Radiation 112
5.4 Solar Irradiation 113
5.4.1 Solar Time 114
5.4.2 Solar Angles 115
5.4.3 Surface Irradiation 117
5.5 Heat Losses/Gains Across the Envelope 118
5.5.1 Opaque Elements, i.e. Walls, Doors, Roofs, Floors, and Cavities 118
5.5.2 Transparent Elements, i.e. Windows, Roof Lights, Light Wells, Atria 119
5.5.3 Unsteady State Heat Transfer 122
5.6 Moisture and Air Transfer 125
5.6.1 Water Vapour Generation and Control 125
5.6.2 Vapour Pressure Gradients and Moisture Transfer 125
5.6.3 Prediction of Interstitial Building Fabric Condensation 126
5.6.4 Air Transfer 127
5.7 Internal Heat Gains 128
5.8 Worked Examples 128
5.9 Tutorial Problems 139

6 Refrigeration and Heat Pumps 143
6.1 Overview 143
Learning Outcomes 143
6.2 Choice of Refrigerants 144
6.2.1 Choice of Refrigerant for Vapour Compression Systems 146
6.2.2 Choice of Refrigerant-Absorbent Pairings for Vapour Absorption Systems 147
6.3 Heat Pump, Refrigeration, and Vapour Compression Cycles 147
6.3.1 Carnot Cycle 149
6.3.2 Ideal Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle 150
6.3.3 Practical Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle 151
6.3.4 Irreversibilities in Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycles 152
6.3.5 Multistage-Vapour Compression Refrigeration 152
6.3.6 Multipurpose Refrigeration Systems with a Single Compressor 154
6.4 Absorption Refrigeration 155
6.4.1 Thermodynamic analysis 157
6.5 Adsorption Refrigeration 159
6.6 Stirling Cycle Refrigeration 159
6.7 Reverse Brayton-Air Refrigeration Cycle 162
6.8 Steam Jet Refrigeration Cycle 163
6.9 Thermoelectric Refrigeration 165
6.10 Thermoacoustic Refrigeration 166
6.11 Worked Examples 167
6.12 Tutorial Problems 179

7 Acoustic Factors 185
7.1 Overview 185
Learning Outcomes 185
7.2 The Human Ear 185
7.3 SoundWaves 187
7.3.1 Wave Motion 187
7.3.2 Wave Characteristics 189
7.4 Power, Intensity, and Pressure 190
7.4.1 The Bel 190
7.4.2 Sound Levels 190
7.4.2.1 Sound Power Level (LW) 190
7.4.2.2 Sound Intensity Level (LI ) 191
7.4.2.3 Sound Pressure Level (Lp) 191
7.4.2.4 Sound-Level Interrelationships 192
7.5 Laws of Sound Combination 193
7.6 Sound Propagation 193
7.6.1 Sound Attenuation 194
7.7 Sound Fields 199
7.7.1 Free Field 200
7.7.2 Diffuse Field 200
7.7.3 Far-Field 201
7.7.4 Near Field 201
7.8 Acoustic Pollution or Noise 201
7.8.1 Effect on Humans 202
7.8.2 Noise Standards 202
7.9 Worked Examples 203
7.10 Tutorial Problems 208

8 Visual Factors 211
8.1 Overview 211
Learning Outcomes 211
8.2 The Human Eye 211
8.3 Light Sources and Receivers 212
8.4 Laws of Illumination 215
8.5 Lamp Types 217
8.5.1 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 218
8.5.2 Gas/Vapour Discharge Lamps 218
8.5.2.1 Tubular Fluorescents 218
8.5.2.2 Metal Vapour/Metal Halide Lamps 218
8.5.2.3 Sodium Lamps 219
8.5.3 Incandescent Lamps 220
8.5.3.1 Tungsten Filament 220
8.5.3.2 Tungsten Halogen Lamps 220
8.5.4 Luminous Efficacy 221
8.6 Luminaires and Directional Control 222
8.6.1 Reflection 222
8.6.2 Refraction 222
8.6.3 Diffusion 223
8.6.4 Directional Performance Ratios 223
8.6.5 Lumen Method 224
8.6.6 Glare 225
8.7 Worked Examples 226
8.8 Tutorial Problems 232

9 Cleaning the Air 235
9.1 Overview 235
Learning Outcomes 235
9.2 Concentration and Exposure 236
9.2.1 Concentration Conversions 236
9.2.2 Pollutant Exposure 236
9.3 Particulate Pollution 236
9.3.1 Nature of Particulates 236
9.3.2 Stokes Law and Terminal Velocity 237
9.4 Principles of Particulate Collection 240
9.4.1 Collection Surfaces 240
9.4.2 Collection Devices 241
9.4.3 Fractional Collection Efficiency 242
9.5 Control Technologies 242
9.5.1 Gravity Settlers 243
9.5.1.1 Model 1: Unmixed Flow Model 243
9.5.1.2 Model 2: Well-Mixed Flow Model 244
9.5.2 Centrifugal Separators or Cyclones 246
9.5.3 Electrostatic Precipitators (ESPs) 250
9.5.4 Fabric Filters 254
9.6 Non-particulate Pollutants 257
9.6.1 Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx, NO, NO2) 257
9.6.2 Ozone (O3) 257
9.6.3 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 258
9.6.4 Radon 258
9.6.5 Carbon Monoxide (CO) 258
9.6.6 Micro-organisms 259
9.7 Principles of Non-particulate Collection 259
9.7.1 Adsorption 259
9.7.2 Ultraviolet Technologies 259
9.7.3 Plasma Cleaning 260
9.8 Pressure Drop Considerations 260
9.9 Worked Examples 261
9.10 Tutorial Problems 268

10 Solar Energy Applications 271
10.1 Overview 271
Learning Outcomes 271
10.2 Solar Thermal Collector Technologies 271
10.2.1 Flat-Plate Glazed Collectors 271
10.2.2 Evacuated Tube Collectors 272
10.2.3 Solar Thermal Collector Efficiency ( c) 273
10.2.4 Solar Thermal Air Heaters 275
10.3 Solar Electricity 276
10.3.1 Photovoltaic (PV) Cells 277
10.3.2 PV Cell Shading 278
10.3.3 PV Energy Production 279
10.4 Ground-Based Energy Sources 279
10.4.1 Direct Ground Heating/Cooling 281
10.4.2 Ground Source Heat Pumps (GSHPs) 281
10.5 Energy Storage 281
10.5.1 Thermal Energy Storage 281
10.5.1.1 Sensible Heat Storage 282
10.5.1.2 Latent Heat Storage 283
10.5.2 Electrical Energy Storage 284
10.5.3 Battery Technologies 286
10.6 Daylighting 288
10.7 Worked Examples 289
10.8 Tutorial Problems 297

11 Measurements and Monitoring 301
11.1 Overview 301
Learning Outcomes 301
11.2 Compositional Parameters 302
11.2.1 Gaseous Concentration Measurement 302
11.2.1.1 Matter-Photon Interaction 302
11.2.2 Particulates Concentration Measurement 303
11.3 Physical Parameters 303
11.3.1 Pressure Measurement Principles 303
11.3.2 Temperature Measurement Principles 304
11.3.2.1 Resistance Thermometers 306
11.3.2.2 Thermocouples 306
11.3.2.3 Thermistor 307
11.3.3 Humidity Measurement Principles 309
11.3.3.1 Wet- and Dry-Bulb Hygrometer (Relative humidity) 310
11.3.4 Velocity Measurement Principles 311
11.3.4.1 Differential Pressure Meters 311
11.3.4.2 Anemometers 312
11.3.4.3 Optical Methods 313
11.4 Visual and Aural Parameters 314
11.4.1 Light Measurement Principles 314
11.4.2 Sound Measurement Principles 314
11.5 Utility Measurement and Metering 315
11.5.1 Electricity Metering 315
11.5.2 Gas Metering 316
11.5.3 Water Flow Metering 317
11.5.4 Heat Metering 320
11.5.5 Energy and Building Management Systems 321
11.6 Worked Examples 321
11.7 Tutorial Problems 327

12 Drivers, Standards, and Methodologies 331
12.1 Overview 331
Learning Outcomes 331
12.2 Compliance Considerations 332
12.2.1 Energy Performance of Buildings (EPB) Standards and the Energy Performance
of Buildings Directive (EPBD) 332
12.2.2 UK Building Regulations and Approved Documents 333
12.2.3 SAP, RdSAP, and SBEM (UK) 333
12.2.4 Energy Performance Certificates (EPCs) 334
12.2.5 Ecodesign and Energy Related Products (ErP) 335
12.2.6 Lamp and Lighting Standards 335
12.2.7 Noise Standards 335
12.2.8 Indoor Environmental Design Parameters 336
12.3 External Certification and Recognition 336
12.3.1 BREEAM 336
12.3.2 Passivhaus 337
12.3.3 WELL Standards 338
12.3.4 LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design 338
12.4 Operational Considerations 338
12.4.1 Post Occupancy Evaluation 338
12.4.2 Building Owner Manuals and Building Logbooks 339
12.4.3 Display Energy Certificates (DECs) 339
12.4.4 Air-Conditioning Reports 340
12.4.5 F-Gas Regulations 340
12.4.6 Indoor Air Pollutants 340
12.4.7 Prevention of Legionellosis 342

13 Emerging Technologies 343
13.1 Overview 343
13.2 Smart Ventilation 343
13.3 Smart Active Glazing 344
13.4 Cooling Technologies 345
13.4.1 Elasto-Caloric Refrigeration 345
13.4.2 Magneto-Caloric Refrigeration 347
13.4.3 Electro-Caloric Refrigeration 348
13.4.4 Baro-Caloric Refrigeration 349
13.4.5 New and Re-Emerging Refrigerants 349
13.5 Smart Tuneable Acoustic Insulation 350
13.6 Smart (Human Centric) Lighting Design 351
13.7 Active Botanical Air Filtration 351
13.8 Peak Lopping Thermal Mass 352
13.9 Smart Batteries 353
13.10 Smart Sensors and Meters 353
13.11 Smart Microgrids 355
13.12 Hydrogen 356
13.12.1 Methane Combustion Chemistry 356
13.12.2 Hydrogen Combustion Chemistry 356
13.12.3 Fuel Property Comparison 357
13.12.4 Fuel Substitution 357

14 Closing Remarks 359

Appendix A The Psychrometric Chart 361

Appendix B Refrigerant Thermodynamic Properties 363

Bibliography 367

Index 369