A Survey on 3D Cameras: Metrological Comparison of Time-of-Flight, Structured-Light and Active Stereoscopy Technologies (eBook)

Preface 6
Contents 8
Acronyms 10
1 Introduction 11
2 3D Shape Acquisition 14
2.1 Camera Model 14
2.1.1 Linear Camera Model 15
2.1.2 Non-linear Camera Model 19
2.2 Depth by Triangulation 21
2.2.1 Stereoscopy 21
2.2.2 Epipolar Geometry 23
2.2.3 Dense Stereoscopy 25
2.2.4 Active Stereoscopy 25
2.2.5 Structured-Light 27
2.3 Depth by Time-of-Flight 29
2.3.1 Time-of-Flight Signal 29
2.3.2 Time-of-Flight Cameras 35
2.4 From Depth Map to Point Cloud 35
3 State-of-the-Art Devices Comparison 38
3.1 PMD Technologies 38
3.2 MESA Imaging 38
3.3 PrimeSense 39
3.4 Microsoft Kinect 40
3.5 Texas Instrument OPT8140 42
3.6 Google Tango™ 43
3.7 Orbbec 44
3.8 Intel RealSense™ 44
3.9 StereoLabs ZED™: Passive Stereo 46
3.10 Discussion 47
4 Metrological Qualification of the Kinect V2™ Time-of-Flight Camera 49
4.1 Time-of-Flight Modulated Signal 49
4.2 Temperature and Stability 52
4.3 Pixel-Wise Characterization 54
4.3.1 Setup 55
4.3.2 Random Component of the Uncertainty in Space 55
4.3.3 Bias Component of the Uncertainty in Space 57
4.3.4 Error Due to the Incidence Angle on the Target 58
4.3.5 Error Due to the Target Characteristics 59
4.3.5.1 Focus on Color 60
4.3.5.2 Focus on Material 60
4.3.5.3 Reflectivity 61
4.4 Sensor-Wise Characterization 62
4.4.1 Known Geometry Reconstructions 62
4.4.1.1 Plane 62
4.4.1.2 Cylinder 63
4.4.1.3 Sphere 64
4.4.2 Mixed Pixels Error 64
4.4.3 Multiple Path Error 65
4.5 Conclusion 68
5 Metrological Qualification of the Orbbec Astra S™ Structured-Light Camera 69
5.1 Preliminary Experiments 69
5.2 Random Error Component Estimation 72
5.3 Systematic Error Component Estimation 74
5.4 Shape Reconstruction 75
5.4.1 Sphere 75
5.4.2 Cylinder 75
5.4.2.1 Concave Corner Shape 76
5.5 Conclusion 77
6 Metrological Qualification of the Intel D400™ Active Stereoscopy Cameras 78
6.1 Preliminary Experiments 78
6.2 Pixel-Wise Characterization 82
6.2.1 Random Component of the Uncertainty in Space 83
6.2.2 Bias Component of the Uncertainty in Space 84
6.2.3 Uncertainty Due to the Orientated Surfaces 86
6.3 Sensor-Wise Characterization 88
6.3.1 Plane Reconstruction 88
6.3.2 Cylinder Reconstruction 88
6.3.3 Sphere Reconstruction 89
6.3.4 Mixed Pixels Error 89
6.4 Conclusion 90
7 Conclusion 93
References 95