Functional Biopolymers (eBook)

Prior to commencing in the School of Aerospace, Transport and Manufacturing at Cranfield University, Dr. Vijay Kumar Thakur was working as a Staff Scientist in the School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering at Washington State University, U.S.A (2013-2016). Some of his other prior significant appointments include being a Research Scientist in Temasek Laboratories at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore (2009-2012) and a Visiting Research Fellow in the Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering at LHU–Taiwan. He did his post-doctoral study in Materials Science & Engineering at Iowa State University and received Ph.D. in Polymer Chemistry (2009).In his academic career, he has published more than 100 SCI journal research articles in the field of chemical sciences/materials science and holds one United States patent. He has also published 33 books and 35 book chapters on the advanced state-of-the-art of polymer science/materials science/nanotechnology with numerous publishers. His  research interests include the synthesis and processing of bio-based polymers, composites; nanostructured materials, hydrogels, polymer micro/nanocomposites, nanoelectronic materials, novel high dielectric constant materials, engineering nanomaterials, electrochromic materials, green synthesis of nanomaterials, and surface functionalization of polymers/nanomaterials. Application aspects range from automotive to aerospace, energy storage, water purification and biomedical fields. Vijay is an editorial board member of several international journals, as well as a member of scientific bodies around the globe. Some of his significant appointments include Associate Editor for Materials Express (SCI); Advisory Editor for SpringerPlus (SCI); Editor for Energies (SCI); Editor for Cogent Chemistry (SCI); Associate Editor for Current Smart Materials; Associate Editor for Current Applied Polymer Science; Regional Editor for Recent Patents on Materials Science (Scopus); and Regional Editor for Current Biochemical Engineering (CAS). He also serves on the Editorial Advisory Board of Polymers for Advanced Technologies (SCI) and is on the Editorial Board of Journal of Macromolecular Science, Part A: Pure and Applied Chemistry (SCI), International Journal of Industrial Chemistry (SCI), Biointerface Research in Applied Chemistry (SCI) and Advances in Natural Sciences: Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (SCI). Dr. Manju Kumari Thakur has been working as an Assistant Professor of Chemistry at the Division of Chemistry, Govt. Degree College Sarkaghat, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, India, since June 2010. She received her B.Sc. in Chemistry, Botany, and Zoology; M.Sc. and M. Phil in Organic Chemistry, and Ph.D. in polymer chemistry from the Chemistry Department at Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, India. She has a rich experience in the field of organic chemistry, biopolymers, composites/nanocomposites, hydrogels, applications of hydrogels in the removal of toxic heavy metal ions, drug delivery, etc. She has published more than 30 scientific research papers in several international journals, coauthored ten books, and has also published 28 book chapters in the field of polymer/nano materials.

Preface 6
Contents 8
About the Editors 10
1 Nano-optical Biosensors for Assessment of Food Contaminants 13
Abstract 13
1 Introduction 13
1.1 Characteristics of Optical Biosensor 14
1.2 Biosensor Components 14
1.3 Sensor Materials 15
1.4 Sensor Designs 15
1.4.1 Physical Adsorption Method 15
1.4.2 Physical Entrapment Method 15
1.5 Transducing Element 16
1.5.1 Optical Transducers 16
1.5.2 Fiber Optic Biosensors 16
1.5.3 Electrochemical Transduction Methods 16
1.5.4 Mass-Based Transducers 17
2 Methods of Preparations 17
2.1 Sol–Gel Process 17
2.1.1 Mechanism of Sol–Gel Formation 18
2.1.2 Preparation of Nano-optical Sensor Doped in TEOS 20
2.1.3 Hybrid Nanomaterials 21
2.1.4 Preparation of Poly Aniline–Ag–Cu Nanocomposite Thin Film by Sol–Gel Method 22
2.1.5 Preparation of Optical Sensor ZnO Nano-rods for Assessment of Salmonella 22
2.2 Molecular Imprinting Nanomaterial Polymer 22
2.2.1 Approach of Molecular Imprinted Polymer Formation 23
Covalent Approach 24
Non-covalent Approach 25
2.3 Molecular Imprinted Nanomaterials 26
2.3.1 Imprinted Nanoparticles (Imp-NPs) 26
2.3.2 Imprinted Nanospheres 26
2.3.3 Imprinted Nanoshells 27
2.3.4 Imprinted Nanofibers 27
3 Application of Nano-optical Biosensor for Determination of Food Contaminants 27
3.1 Plasmonic Nano-biosensors for Detection of E. coli Bacteria 27
3.2 PANI–Ag–Cu Nanocomposite Thin Films Based Impedimetric Microbial Sensor for Detection of E. coli Bacteria 28
3.3 A Nanoporous Membrane-Based Impedimetric Immunosensor for Label-Free Detection of Pathogenic Bacteria in Whole Milk 28
3.4 A Micro-fluidic Nano-biosensor for the Detection of Pathogenic Salmonella 28
3.5 DNA Functionalized Direct Electrodeposited Gold Nano-aggregates for Efficient Detection of Salmonella typhi 29
3.6 Nano-gold Sensor for Detection of Salmonella spp. in Foods 29
3.7 Carbon Nanotube Immunosensor for Salmonella 29
3.8 Application of Room Temperature Photoluminescence from ZnO Nano-rods for Salmonella Detection 30
3.9 Real-Time and Sensitive Detection of Salmonella typhimurium Using an Automated Quartz Crystal Micro Balance (QCM) Instrument with Nanoparticles Amplification 30
3.10 Universal Biomolecular Signal Transduction-Based Nano-electronic Bio-detection System 31
3.11 Highly Sensitive SERS-Based Immunoassay of Aflatoxin B1 Using Silica-Encapsulated Hollow Gold Nanoparticles 31
3.12 A Simple and Rapid Optical Biosensor for Detection of Aflatoxin B1 Based on Competitive Dispersion of Gold Nano-rods 31
References 32
2 Functionalization of Tamarind Gum for Drug Delivery 36
Abstract 36
1 Introduction 37
2 Tamarind Gum: Sources, Composition, Properties, and Uses 38
2.1 Sources 38
2.2 Composition 39
2.3 Properties and Uses 39
3 Rationality of Tamarind Gum Functionalization 41
4 Carboxymethylated Tamarind Gum in Drug Delivery 41
4.1 Carboxymethylation 41
4.2 Carboxymethylated Tamarind Gum Matrix Tablets for Sustained Drug Delivery 42
4.3 Carboxymethylated Tamarind Gum Nanoparticles for Ocular Drug Delivery 43
4.4 Carboxymethylated Tamarind Gum Spheroids for Controlled Drug Delivery 46
4.5 Carboxymethylated Tamarind Gum-Chitosan Interpolymeric Complexation-Based Film Coating for Colon Drug Delivery 48
4.6 Carboxymethylated Tamarind Gum-Poly Vinyl Alcohol Cryogels for Sustained Drug Release 52
5 Thiolated Tamarind Gum in Drug Delivery 54
5.1 Thiolation 54
5.2 Thiolated Tamarind Gum in Mucoadhesive Drug Delivery 54
6 Graft-Modified Tamarind Gum in Drug Delivery 57
6.1 Graft Modification 57
6.2 Tamarind Gum-g-Polyacrylamide as Matrix for Controlled Release of Drug 59
6.3 Tamarind Gum-g-Poly(N-Vinyl-2-Pyrrolidon) in Mucoadhesive Drug Delivery 61
7 Conclusion 62
References 62
3 Biopolymer Composite Materials with Antimicrobial Effects Applied to the Food Industry 68
Abstract 68
1 Introduction 69
2 Antimicrobial Agents Incorporated into Edible Films and Coatings 70
2.1 Traditional Antimicrobial Agents 76
2.2 Natural Antimicrobial Agents 77
2.2.1 Agents of Vegetable Origin 77
Essential Oils 77
Vanillin 77
Green Tea, Grapefruit, and Grape Seed Extracts 78
2.2.2 Agents of Animal Origin 79
Enzymes 79
Chitosan 79
2.2.3 Agents of Microbial Origin 80
2.2.4 Agents of Inorganic Origin 81
3 Factors to Consider in the Choice of Antimicrobials for Obtaining Functional Biopolymers 81
4 Determination of Antimicrobial Activity 83
4.1 Dilution Method 83
4.2 Disk Diffusion Method 83
5 Edible Films and Coatings with Antimicrobial Effects Applied to Foodstuffs 84
5.1 Meat Products 85
5.2 Fishery Products 87
5.3 Cheese 88
5.4 Fruits and Vegetables 88
6 Impacts on Sensory Attributes 90
7 Toxicological Aspects of Composite Biopolymers with Antimicrobial Effects 91
8 Regulatory Status 94
9 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 97
Acknowledgements 98
References 98
4 Functional Biocomposites of Calcium Phosphate–Chitosan and Its Derivatives for Hard Tissue Regeneration Short Review 108
Abstract 108
1 Introduction 109
2 Bones 112
3 Chitosan 113
4 Medical Applications for Chitosan 116
5 Micro- and Nanocrystalline Chitosan (MCCH and NCh) 117
6 Calcium Phosphate (HAp, B-TCP) 118
7 Infrared Spectroscopy Fourier Transformation (FTIR) of the Commercial Calcium Phosphate Powders 119
8 Morphology and Determination of Particles Size in Commercial HAp and ?-TCP Powders 120
9 Preparation of Chitosan Solutions Containing ?-TCP, HAp, and HAp/?-TCP 122
10 Calcium Phosphate–Chitosan Biocomposites in Multifilament Fibers Form 125
11 Preparation of Chitosan Solutions Modified with HAp/?-TCP Nanoparticles to Prepare Multifilament Fibers by Wet Spinning 129
12 Rheology Studies of Chitosan Solution (MCT 11) Modified with HAp/?-TCP Nanoparticles 130
13 Spinning Process of Chitosan Multifilament Fibers Modified with Nano-ceramics 132
14 Mechanical Properties of Multifilament Chitosan Fibers Modified with Nano-ceramics 132
15 Infrared Spectroscopy Fourier Transformation (FTIR) of the Chitosan Fibers Modified with Nano-ceramics 134
16 Morphology and Chemistry of Chitosan Fibers Modified with HAp, ?-TCP and HAp/?-TCP Nanoparticles 135
17 Preparation of Chitosan Spinning Solution Containing HAp, ?-TCP and HAp/?-TCP Nanoparticles 137
18 Wet Spinning Process of Chitosan Fibers Containing Nano-ceramics 137
19 Conclusions 138
Acknowledgements 138
References 139
5 Surface Properties of Thermoplastic Starch Materials Reinforced with Natural Fillers 142
Abstract 142
1 Introduction 143
2 Effect of the Amylose/Amylopectin Ratio on the Surface Properties of TPS 147
3 Effect of Exposure to Pulsed Light on the Surface Properties of TPS 151
4 Effect of the Chemical Modification of Starch on the Surface Properties of TPS 152
5 Effect of Plasticizers on the Surface Properties of TPS 155
6 Effect of Composites on the Surface Properties of TPS 158
6.1 Effect of Clay/Starch Composite Materials 158
6.2 Effect of Natural Fibers/Starch Composite Materials 162
7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 164
Acknowledgements 165
References 165
6 Functional Biopolymer Composites 170
Abstract 170
1 Introduction 171
1.1 Biopolymers 171
1.2 Biopolymer Composites 172
1.3 Functional Biopolymer Composites 173
1.3.1 Chitin and Chitosan as Biocomposites Sorbents 174
1.3.2 Cellulose and Cellulose Derivatives as Biocomposites Electrospun 174
1.3.3 Silver (Noble Metal) Decorated Biocomposites for Drug Delivery 175
1.3.4 Lignocellulosic Biocomposites for Bone and Cartilage Tissue Regeneration 175
2 Methods of Preparation of Bionanocomposites 176
2.1 In Situ Reaction 176
2.2 Solution Casting Technique 176
2.3 Melt Mixing Technique 176
3 Characterization Techniques 177
3.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 177
3.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) 179
3.3 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) 179
3.4 Fourier Transforms Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) 180
4 Properties 181
4.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis 181
4.2 Mechanical Properties 182
4.3 Biodegradation Properties 183
4.4 Antimicrobial Properties of Bionanocomposites 183
5 Applications of Functional Biopolymer Composites 185
5.1 Biomedical Application 185
5.2 Packaging Applications 185
5.3 Environmental Applications 186
6 Conclusion 188
Acknowledgements 188
References 188
7 Cellulose-Enabled Polylactic Acid (PLA) Nanocomposites: Recent Developments and Emerging Trends 194
Abstract 194
1 Introduction 195
2 Nanocelluloses 197
2.1 Cellulose Nanofibers (CNFs) 197
2.2 Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNs) 199
3 Polylactic Acid (PLA) 202
4 PLA/Nanocellulose Biocomposites 204
4.1 Processing Techniques 204
4.1.1 Solvent Casting 204
4.1.2 Emulsion Filtration/Emulsion Freeze-Drying 206
4.1.3 Direct Melt-Compounding 207
4.2 Properties of PLA/Nanocellulose Biocomposites 209
4.2.1 Thermal Properties 209
4.2.2 Crystallization Behaviors 212
4.2.3 Barrier Properties 213
4.2.4 Foaming Behaviors 215
4.2.5 Mechanical Properties 217
5 Conclusions and Outlook 220
References 221
8 Epoxidized Vegetable Oils for Thermosetting Resins and Their Potential Applications 228
Abstract 228
1 Introduction 229
2 Thermosetting Resins from Renewable Resources and Their Applications 230
2.1 Coatings 231
2.2 EVO Based Composites 234
2.3 Nanocomposites with EVO Matrices 237
3 Conclusions and Future Perspective 242
References 243
9 Philosophical Study on Composites and Their Drilling Techniques 250
Abstract 250
1 Introduction 250
2 Types of Fibre-Reinforced Composites 251
2.1 Natural Fibre-Reinforced Composites 252
2.1.1 Historical Background of Natural Fibre-Reinforced Composites 253
2.1.2 Plant or Vegetable Fibres 253
2.1.3 Chemical Properties of Plant Fibres 253
2.1.4 Physical Properties of Plant Fibres 254
2.1.5 Examples of Natural Fibre-Reinforced Composites 255
2.1.6 Advantages of Natural Fibre-Reinforced Composites 255
2.1.7 Disadvantages of Natural Fibre-Reinforced Composites 256
3 Types of Drilling Processes 257
3.1 Conventional Drilling 257
3.1.1 Mechanics of Conventional Drilling 257
3.2 Drilling of Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites 260
3.2.1 Conventional Drilling of Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites 262
3.3 Failure Modes of FRPs in Conventional Drilling 263
3.3.1 Delamination 263
3.3.2 Mechanics of Delamination 263
3.3.3 Delamination Assessment 264
3.3.4 Types of Delamination 265
4 Non-conventional Drilling 269
4.1 Classification of Non-conventional Drilling Processes 269
4.2 Types of Non-conventional Drilling Methods 270
4.2.1 Laser Beam Drilling (LBD) 270
Mechanics of Laser Beam Drilling 270
Laser Beam Drilling of FRPs 271
Advantages of Laser Beam Drilling 274
Disadvantages of Laser Beam Drilling 275
4.2.2 Water Jet and Abrasive Jet Drilling 275
Mechanics of Abrasive Jet Drilling 276
Abrasive Jet Drilling of FRPs 276
Advantages of Abrasive Jet Drilling 277
Disadvantages of Abrasive Jet Drilling 277
4.2.3 Electrical Discharge Drilling (EDD) 278
Mechanics of EDD 279
Electrical Discharge Drilling of FRPs 279
Advantages of Electrical Discharge Drilling 281
Limitations of Electrical Discharge Drilling 281
4.2.4 Ultrasonic-Assisted Drilling (UAD) 281
Mechanics of UAD 281
Drilling Parameters in UAD 283
Ultrasonic-Assisted Drilling of FRPs 284
Advantages of Ultrasonic-Assisted Drilling 285
Disadvantages of Ultrasonic-Assisted Drilling 285
Summary of Ultrasonic-Assisted Drilling 285
5 Conclusions and Future Perspective 286
References 287
10 Multicomponent, Semi-interpenetrating-Polymer-Network and Interpenetrating-Polymer-Network Hydrogels: Smart Materials for Biomedical Applications 292
Abstract 292
1 Introduction 293
2 Classification of Environmental-Responsive Hydrogels 295
2.1 Natural Hydrogels 296
2.2 Synthetic Hydrogels 298
2.3 Hybrid Hydrogels 299
3 Preparation of Hydrogels 300
3.1 Hydrogels Produced via Physical Cross-Linking Methods 300
3.2 Hydrogels Produced via Chemical Cross-Linking Methods 303
4 Novel Hydrogel Preparation Methods 305
4.1 Self-assembly from Genetically Engineered Block Copolymers 308
4.2 Cross-Linking of Polymer Precursors with Genetically Engineered Protein Domains 309
5 Structure of Hydrogels 309
6 Properties of Hydrogels Based on Cross-Linking Structure 311
7 Properties of Physically Cross-Linked Hydrogels 311
8 Properties of Chemically Cross-Linked Hydrogels 314
9 Classification of Environmental-Responsive Hydrogels on the Basis of Stimuli 316
9.1 Physical Stimuli 317
9.1.1 Temperature Responsive 317
9.2 Negatively Thermosensitive Hydrogels 318
9.3 Positively Thermosensitive Hydrogels 319
9.4 Thermo-reversible Hydrogels 319
9.4.1 Photo-Responsive 320
9.4.2 Electric Responsive 321
9.4.3 Pressure Responsive 323
9.5 Chemical Stimuli 323
10 Characterization Methods 329
10.1 Water in Hydrogels 329
10.2 Thermodynamics of Hydrogel Swelling 331
10.3 Response Mechanism 331
11 Mechanical Properties 333
11.1 Solubility 333
11.2 Rheology 334
11.3 Morphological Characterization 334
11.4 Crystalline Structure 334
11.5 Chemical Characterization 335
12 Applications of Smart Hydrogels 335
12.1 “On–Off” Drug Delivery Systems 335
12.2 Injectable Hydrogels 336
12.3 Tissue Engineering 337
12.4 Biomimetic Actuators 339
12.4.1 Sensors 341
12.5 Bioseparation 343
12.6 Self-Healing 343
13 Future Trends 344
14 Conclusion 345
References 346
11 Emulgels: Application Potential in Drug Delivery 354
Abstract 354
1 Introduction 354
1.1 Benefits of Emulgel Drug Delivery System 356
1.1.1 Incorporation of Lipophilic Drugs 356
1.1.2 Improved Loading Efficiency 357
1.1.3 Greater Stability 357
1.1.4 Feasibility of Manufacturing with Low Cost 357
1.1.5 Controlled Release 358
1.1.6 No Intensive Sonication 358
2 Formulation Considerations for Emulgel 358
2.1 Oil Phase Selection Criteria 358
2.2 Selection Criteria for Emulsifier 363
2.3 Gelling Agent Selection Criteria 364
2.4 Penetration Enhancers Selection Criteria 366
3 Formulation Methods 366
4 Routes of Administration for Emulgel Formulation 370
5 Characterization of Emulgel 371
5.1 Physical Evaluation 371
5.2 Rheological Behaviour 371
5.3 Spreading Coefficient 371
5.4 Swelling Index 374
5.5 Extrudability Study of Topical Emulgel (Tube Test) 374
5.6 Drug Content Determination 375
5.7 Ex Vivo Bioadhesive Strength 375
5.8 In Vitro/Permeation Studies 375
5.9 Skin Irritation Test (Patch Test) 375
5.10 Stability Studies 375
6 Marketed Preparations 376
7 Future Perspectives 376
8 Conclusion 377
Acknowledgements 378
References 378