Canine and Feline Dementia (eBook)

Dr. Gary Landsberg BSc, DVM, DACVB, dip ECAWBM received his DVM from the Ontario Veterinary College in 1976. He is a board certified veterinary behaviourist with specialist credentialing from the American College of Veterinary Behaviorists and the European College of Animal Welfare and Behavioural Medicine. He offers behavior consultation services at the North Toronto Veterinary Behaviour Specialty Clinic in Thornhill, is a consultant for VIN, Vice President of Veterinary Affairs for CanCog Technologies and a member of the Fear Free initiative executive committee. He is co-author of Behavior Problems of the Dog and Cat. Dr. Landsberg received the companion animal behavior award from AAHA in 2000 and the meritorious service award from the Western Veterinary Conference in 2014.Norbert Zilka is an Associate Professor at the University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Kosice, Slovakia. He received his Ph.D. degree in immunology from the Institute of Neuroimmunology, Slovak Academy of Sciences in 2006. He is a founder and the director of the Institute of Neuroimmunology, n.o. and vice-chairperson of Slovak Society forNeuroscience. This year, he has been awarded the Doctor of Science (DSc) degree in neuroscience. He has published almost 50 original papers and reviews. His main scientific interest is on pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer’s disease and canine dementia. Aladar Madari is an asistent of professor at the University of veterinary medicine and pharmacy in Košice, Slovakia. He works as clinical researcher at Department of Internal Diseases in Small Animal Clinic. He received his Ph.D. degree in the internal medicine of small animals from the Small Animal Clinic, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, Slovakia in 2012. He specialises in neurological disease in geriatric dogs and cats in relation to behavioral changes. He developed CADES (CAnine DEmentia Scale) for quick detection of behavioral changes in senior dogs. He is one of the pioneers of behavioral medicine for small animals in Slovakia. He is a member of several professional and science societies and the Chamber of Veterinary Surgeons in Slovakia. His main professional and scientific interest is on behavioural and neuropathological changes in canine and feline neurodegenerative disorders.

Preface 5
Canine Dementia: Unbearable Lightness of Ageing 5
Acknowledgements 7
Contents 10
1: Clinical Picture of Canine and Feline Cognitive Impairment 11
1.1 Clinical Signs of Cognitive Dysfunction 12
1.2 Prevalence of Behavior Signs in Senior Pets 14
1.3 Pet Owner Reporting 15
1.4 Diagnosis 16
1.5 Senior Cognition and Decline in Learning and Memory 18
1.6 Neuropsychological and Behavioral Assessment 18
1.7 Summary 19
References 20
2: Behavioural and Medical Differentials of Cognitive Decline and Dementia in Dogs and Cats 23
2.1 Differential Diagnosis of CDS 23
2.1.1 Behavioural Differentials of CDS in Dogs and Cats 23
2.1.1.1 Anxiety 24
2.1.1.2 Fear 25
2.1.1.3 Night-Time Waking 26
2.1.1.4 Excessive Vocalisation 27
2.1.1.5 House Soiling 27
2.1.1.6 Aggression 28
2.1.1.7 Repetitive Behaviours 29
2.1.2 Medical Differentials of CDS in Dogs and Cats 29
2.1.2.1 Sensory Decline 31
2.1.2.2 Pain 31
2.1.2.3 Cardiovascular Disease 31
2.1.2.4 Endocrine Disease 32
2.1.2.5 Gastrointestinal Disease 33
2.1.2.6 Urinary System Disease 33
2.1.3 Neurological Differentials of CDS in Dogs and Cats 34
2.2 Diagnostic Approach to Reach a Presumptive Diagnosis of CDS 34
2.2.1 Signalment 34
2.2.2 History Taking 34
2.2.2.1 Disorientation 35
2.2.2.2 Alterations in Interactions with Owners, Other Pets and the Environment 36
2.2.2.3 House Soiling 36
2.2.2.4 Changes in Activity 36
2.2.2.5 Establishment of the Most Relevant Complaint(s) 36
2.2.3 Patient Examination 37
2.2.3.1 Physical Examination 37
2.2.3.2 Orthopaedic Examination 37
2.2.3.3 Ophthalmological Examination 38
2.2.3.4 Neurological Examination 38
2.2.3.5 Changes on Neurological Examination that Would Not Be Expected with CDS 39
2.2.4 Problem List and Differential Diagnosis 40
2.2.4.1 Problem List 40
2.2.4.2 Differential List 41
2.2.4.3 Differential Diagnosis: DAMNITV 41
2.2.4.4 Degenerative Differentials 41
Ceroid Lipofuscinosis 41
L-2-Hydroxyglutaric Aciduria 42
Other Neurodegenerative Diseases 43
2.2.4.5 Anomalous: Brain Malformations 43
2.2.4.6 Metabolic Differentials 44
Hypoglycaemia 44
Hepatic Encephalopathy 45
Renal Encephalopathy 47
Electrolytes Disturbances 48
2.2.4.7 Nutritional 50
Vitamin B1 Deficiency 50
Vitamin E Deficiency 51
2.2.4.8 Neoplastic Brain Disease 51
2.2.4.9 Inflammatory Non-infectious Brain Disease 53
2.2.4.10 Infectious Brain Disease 55
2.2.4.11 Traumatic Differential: Chronic Repetitive Traumatic Brain Injury 56
2.2.4.12 Toxic Differential: Lead Poisoning 57
2.2.4.13 Vascular 58
Hypertensive Encephalopathy 58
Cerebrovascular Accidents 59
2.2.5 Diagnostic Testing 61
2.2.5.1 Laboratory Testing 61
2.2.5.2 Blood Pressure 62
2.2.5.3 Advanced Imaging 62
2.2.5.4 CSF Analysis 63
2.2.5.5 Additional Testing 63
2.2.6 Summary 65
References 66
3: Phenotypic Variability and Clinical Staging of Canine Dementia 69
3.1 The Clinical Picture of Canine Dementia in a Nutshell 70
3.1.1 Disorientation and Activity Changes 70
3.1.2 Changes in Social Interactions 70
3.1.3 Sleep and Wakefulness Cycle Changes 71
3.1.4 Changes in Hygiene Habits 71
3.2 Questionnaires: A Double-Edged Sword in the Diagnostics of CDS 71
3.3 CDS Clinical Staging 73
3.4 The Phenotypic Variability of CDS 75
3.5 Summary 76
References 76
4: The Aged Dog as a Natural Model of Alzheimer’s Disease Progression 79
4.1 Introduction 80
4.2 Alzheimer’s Disease 81
4.2.1 Neuropathological Features 81
4.2.2 Cognitive Decline 81
4.2.3 Pathophysiological Biomarkers of Progression 82
4.3 The Aged Dog Model of Alzheimer’s Disease Progression 83
4.3.1 Neuropathological Changes 83
4.3.2 Cognitive Decline 85
4.3.3 Pathophysiological Biomarkers 88
4.4 Predictive Validity of the Aged Dog Model 89
4.4.1 Symptomatic Treatment 90
4.4.2 Disease-Modifying Treatments 90
4.4.3 Non-pharmacological Studies 91
4.5 Summary 92
References 92
5: Brain Aging in the Dog 103
5.1 Introduction 103
5.2 Structural Brain Changes and Neuron Losses 104
5.3 Plaques and A? Accumulation 104
5.4 Vascular Neuropathology 106
5.5 Oxidative Damage and Mitochondrial Dysfunction 107
5.6 Inflammation 108
5.7 White Matter Pathology 108
5.8 Summary 108
References 109
6: Neuropathology of Feline Dementia 113
6.1 Introduction 113
6.2 Structural Brain Changes and Neuron Losses 114
6.3 A? Accumulation 115
6.4 Tau Pathology 116
6.5 Neurotransmitter Systems 118
6.6 Vascular Pathology 118
6.7 Summary 119
References 119
7: Proteomic Approaches for Diagnostics of Canine and Feline Dementia 122
7.1 Tissue Types for Biomarker Identification and Quantification 122
7.1.1 Cerebrospinal Fluid 123
7.1.2 Blood (Plasma and Serum) 123
7.1.3 Urine, Saliva, and Tears 124
7.2 Biomarker Quantification Methods Used in Diagnostics 124
7.2.1 Immunoassays 124
7.2.2 Multiplex and High-Sensitivity Immunoassays 125
7.3 Proteomic Approaches in Biomarker Discovery 127
7.3.1 Proteome Fractionation Techniques 128
7.3.2 Mass Spectrometry 129
7.4 Summary 131
References 131
8: Current Pharmacological and  Non-­pharmacological Approaches for Therapy of Feline and Canine Dementia 137
8.1 Treatment of CDS 138
8.2 Pharmacological Therapy 138
8.2.1 Selegiline 139
8.3 Propentofylline 139
8.4 Cholinergic Decline 140
8.5 Natural Supplements 140
8.6 Nutritional Intervention 141
8.7 New Horizons 143
8.7.1 Adjunctive Therapy 144
8.8 Drug Doses 145
8.8.1 Behavioral and Environmental Management 145
8.9 Considerations for Senior Pet Enrichment 146
8.10 Feline 146
References 147
Additional Resources 151
9: Preventive and Risk Factors of Canine Dementia 152
9.1 Canine Dementia Is an Age-Related Disorder of the Brain 153
9.2 Diet as Protective and Risk Factor for CDS 154
9.3 Dog Size as a Risk Factor for CDS 154
9.4 The Influence of Environment on Canine Cognitive Status 155
9.5 Other Risk Factors for CDS 156
9.6 Protective Factors 157
9.7 Summary 158
References 159
Cognitive Dysfunction Syndrome: Information for Pet Owners 162