Front Cover 1
Related titles 3
Environmental Remediation and Restoration of Contaminated Nuclearand NORM Sites 4
Copyright 5
Contents 6
List of contributors 10
Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy 12
Part One - Contaminated nuclear and NORM sites: types and characteristics 16
1 - Radioactive and other environmental contamination from uranium mining and milling 18
1.1 Introduction 18
1.2 The front end of the nuclear fuel cycle 19
1.3 Uranium mining and milling (UMM) legacy sites and their remediation 30
1.4 Life-cycle management of UMM sites 35
1.5 Future trends 41
1.6 Sources of further information 43
References 44
2 - Radioactive contamination and other environmental impacts of waste from nuclear and conventional power plants, medical and other industrial sources 50
2.1 Introduction: radioactively contaminated sites and other environmental impacts from nuclear and radioactive installations 50
2.2 Environmental impacts from nuclear power plant radioactive effluents 51
2.3 Environmental impacts from coal power plant radioactive effluents and solid waste 53
2.4 Solid radioactive wastes from nuclear power plants 54
2.5 Solid radioactive wastes from facilities for medical, research or industrial purposes 59
2.6 Environmental impacts from nuclear and radiological accidents 62
2.7 Future trends 66
2.8 Sources of further information 70
References 70
3 - Radionuclide behaviour in the natural environment: an overview 72
3.1 Introduction 72
3.2 Description of the radionuclides (RNs) of interest 72
3.3 RN migration: presentation of the different governing processes 75
3.4 The RN source term 77
3.5 RN speciation and precipitation 79
3.6 RN retention at the solid–liquid interface 82
3.7 RN transport processes 86
3.8 Coupling of chemical and transport processes: towards an efficient simulation approach 89
3.9 Conclusion: how to reliably predict any future RN migration 91
References 92
Appendix: main physical and chemical properties of the most significant natural and artificial radionuclides to be found in NORM... 94
Part Two - Environmental restorationframeworks and processes 98
4 - Stakeholder involvement in the remediation of contaminated nuclear and NORM sites 100
4.1 Introduction 100
4.2 Definition of stakeholders and the importance of engagement at nuclear and NORM sites 101
4.3 Evolution of stakeholder engagement 107
4.4 Mechanisms of engagement 109
4.5 Constructing an engagement programme 111
4.6 Future trends 113
4.7 Case studies 114
4.8 Sources of further information and advice 116
References 116
5 - International recommendations and guidance on regulation of contaminated nuclear and NORM sites, and aspects of national level application 118
5.1 Introduction 118
5.2 Regulatory challenges 122
5.3 International recommendations and guidance and examples of national regulatory requirements 123
5.4 Progression from recognition to resolution 124
5.5 Distinguishing different nuclear legacy situations 125
5.6 Factors to consider in addressing regulatory challenges at nuclear legacy sites 126
References 127
6 - Modelling of radionuclide distribution in contaminated nuclear and NORM sites 130
6.1 Introduction 130
6.2 Background 130
6.3 Modelling concepts and available models for environmental and risk assessments 133
6.4 Applications to contaminated nuclear and NORM sites 143
6.5 Case studies 147
6.6 Future trends 153
6.7 Sources of further information and advice 154
Acknowledgments 155
References 155
7 - Risk assessment and cost–benefit analysis for the restoration of contaminated nuclear and NORM sites 158
7.1 Introduction 158
7.2 Site end states 158
7.3 Standards of remediation 159
7.4 Risk assessments 160
7.5 Derivation of remedial targets 163
7.6 Cost–benefit analysis 164
7.7 Application of cost–benefit analysis to complex sites 166
7.8 Case studies 168
7.9 Future trends 171
7.10 Sources of further information and advice 171
References 172
Part Three - Remediation techniquesand waste disposal 174
8 - Electrokinetic remediation and other physico-chemical remediation techniques for in situ treatment of soil from contaminated nuclear and NORM sites 176
8.1 Introduction: in situ physico-chemical remediation technologies from contaminated nuclear and NORM sites 176
8.2 In situ soil flushing 177
8.3 Vitrification 180
8.4 Solidification and stabilization 181
8.5 Electrokinetic remediation 183
8.6 Coupled technologies: electrokinetic treatment combined with other soil remediation technologies 196
8.7 Future trends 196
References 197
9 - In situ and ex situ bioremediation of radionuclide-contaminated soils at nuclear and norm sites 200
9.1 Introduction 200
9.2 Radionuclides in contaminated soils, sediments, and wastes 201
9.3 Characterization of radionuclides in contaminated soils and wastes 204
9.4 Mechanisms of biotransformation of radionuclides 205
9.5 Ex situ and in situ remediation studies of contaminated soils 209
9.6 In situ and ex situ immobilization of uranium by anaerobic bacteria 223
9.7 Ex situ remediation of uranium-contaminated soils, sediments, and wastes 230
9.8 Plutonium biotransformation and remediation studies 240
9.9 Summary 242
Acknowledgments 243
References 243
Suggested reading 250
10 - Physical, chemical, and biological treatment of groundwater at contaminated nuclear and NORM sites 252
10.1 Introduction 252
10.2 Physical treatment methods 252
10.3 Biological treatment methods 255
10.4 Chemical treatment methods 255
10.5 Application of treatment processes to specific radionuclides 260
10.6 Future trends 268
10.7 Sources of further information and advice 269
References 269
Index 272