Mycorrhiza (eBook)

Ajit Varma is also series editor of our series "Soil Biology".

Foreword 5
References 8
Preface 9
Preface 11
Preface to the First Edition 13
Contents 15
Contributors 19
Part I of the Art 33
Mycorrhizal Fungi: What We Know and What Should We Know? 34
1 Introduction 34
2 Origin and Evolution of Mycorrhizal Studies 36
3 Development of AM Fungi 38
4 Beneficial Effects of AM Fungi 39
5 Mycorrhiza as Biological Agents 43
6 Factors Affecting the Symbiosis 45
7 Mycorrhizal Host Specificity and Seasonality 48
8 Ecological Significance of AMF Diversity: Inter- and Intraspecies Variations 49
References 49
Diversity, Function and Potential Applications of the Root- Associated Endophytes 60
1 Diversity of Fungal Root Endophytes 60
2 The Shortgrass Steppe: A Case Study of Fungal Root Endophyte Diversity and Function 61
3 Functions of Root Endophytes 66
4 Potential Applications of Root-Associated Endophytes 80
5 Conclusions 84
References 85
Structure, Extent and Functional Significance of Belowground Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Networks 90
1 Introduction 90
2 Spore Germination and Structure of Pre-symbiotic Mycelium 91
3 Evidence for Nonself-incompatibility in Pre-symbiotic Mycelial Networks 94
4 Visualization of Intact Mycorrhizal Networks Spreading from Roots Colonized by AM Fungi 97
5 Visualization of Belowground Interconnections Between Plants of Different Species, Genera and Families 98
References 100
Foraging for Resources in Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi: What is an Obligate Symbiont Searching for and How is it Done? 104
1 Introduction 104
2 Resources for an Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungus 106
3 Foraging Activity 108
4 Testing Foraging Models in AMF 110
5 Main Challenges and New Approaches in Foraging Studies 115
6 Conclusions 116
References 116
Global Diversity Patterns of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi – Community Composition and Links with Functionality 120
1 Introduction 120
2 Taxon Diversity of AM Fungal Communities 121
3 Methodological Issues, Obstacles 126
4 Factors Shaping Communities of AM Fungi 130
5 Linking Taxonomic Diversity with Functionality 132
6 Conclusions 136
References 137
Mycorrhiza Helper Bacteria 144
1 Introduction 144
2 Helper Strains: Origin and Taxonomy 145
3 The Helper Mechanisms 146
4 Potential for Use of Mycorrhiza Helper Bacteria in Agri- and Silviculture 155
5 Perspectives 158
References 158
Part II Genetics and Molecular Biology 164
Genomic Organization and Mechanisms of Inheritance in Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi: Contrasting the Evidence and Implications of Current Theories 166
1 Introduction 166
2 Mendelian versus Non-Mendelian Inheritance 167
3 AM Fungal Cells Harbor Many Nuclei and Many Genetic Variants 168
4 Alternative Hypotheses on Genomic Organization: The Evidence 168
5 Alternative Hypotheses on Genomic Organization: The Implications 173
6 A Model of Inheritance under Heterokaryosis 176
7 Conclusions 177
References 178
Ectomycorrhiza and Water Transport 180
1 Introduction 180
2 Impact of Soil Growing Hyphae on Plant Water Support 181
3 Ectomycorrhiza Formation Results in Modification of Plant Roots and Affects Their Water Transport Properties 181
4 Aquaporins: Gates for Symplastic Water Transport 182
5 Modulation of Plasma Membrane Water Transport Capacity in Poplar Fine Roots by Ectomycorrhiza Formation 183
6 Impacts of Ectomycorrhizas on Trees under Drought Conditions 185
7 Conclusions 186
References 187
Hypogeous Pezizaceae: Physiology and Molecular Genetics 192
1 Introduction 192
2 Unresolved Problems in the Life Cycle of Underground Pezizaceae 193
3 Factors Determining the Type of Mycorrhiza Formed 198
4 Genes Expressed in Fungus and Plant Prior to and under Mycorrhizal Conditions 204
5 Conclusions 209
References 209
Evaluation of the Possible Participation of Drought- induced Genes in the Enhanced Tolerance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Plants to Water Deficit 216
1 Introduction 216
2 Late Embryogenesis Abundant Proteins 217
3 D1-Pyrroline-5-Carboxylate Synthetase (P5CS) 219
4 Genes Encoding 14-3-3 Proteins and Binding Proteins 222
5 Modulation of Aquaporins 226
6 Conclusions 230
References 231
Part III Eco-Function 238
The Beneficial Effect of Mycorrhizae on N Utilization by the Host- Plant: Myth or Reality? 240
1 Introduction 240
2 Dynamics of N in Terrestrial Environment and Availability of N in Soils 241
3 Absorption and Assimilation of Nitrogen by the Partners of the Mycorrhizal Symbiosis 245
4 Transfer of Nitrogen to the Host Plant 250
5 Conclusions 264
References 265
Ion Dynamics During the Polarized Growth of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi: From Presymbiosis to Symbiosis 272
1 Introduction 272
2 The Structural Organization Definition and Polarized Growth in the Germ Tubes of AM Fungi 274
3 Proton Fluxes and the Regulation of Ion Uptake 277
4 Electrophysiological Responses as a Component of Signaling Plant – fungus: A Possible pH- sensing Mechanism 281
5 Ions Play in the AM Signaling? Going to Symbiosis! 284
6 Conclusions 286
References 287
Arbuscular Mycorrhiza in Metal Hyperaccumulating Plants 292
1 Introduction 292
2 Metal Hyperaccumulations: State of the Art 293
3 Arbuscular Mycorrhiza in Metal-Contaminated Environments 296
4 AM in Metal Hyperaccumulating Plants 300
References 306
Mycorrhizal Fungi and Other Root Endophytes as Biocontrol Agents Against Root Pathogens 312
1 Introduction 312
2 Endophytes 312
3 Mycorrhizal Fungi 314
4 Plant Growth-promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPRs) 318
5 Biological Control 319
6 Microbial Diversity and Disease Suppression 320
7 Interactions for the Biological Control of Root Pathogens 323
8 Biocontrol Research, Development and Adoption 330
9 Conclusions 330
References 331
The Biocontrol Effect of Mycorrhization on Soilborne Fungal Pathogens and the Autoregulation of the AM Symbiosis: One Mechanism, Two Effects? 338
1 Introduction 338
2 The Biocontrol Effect of Mycorrhization on Soilborne Fungal Pathogens 339
3 The Mycorrhizal Autoregulation 344
4 The Mycorrhizal Biocontrol Effect and the Mycorrhizal Autoregulation: One Mechanism, Two Effects? 345
5 Conclusions 347
References 348
Resource Partitioning Between Extraradical and Intraradical AM Fungal Mycelium 352
1 Introduction 352
2 Mechanisms of Nutrient Transport 353
3 Carbon Transport and Partitioning 354
4 Phosphate Transport and Partitioning 358
5 Conclusions 364
References 364
Ozone Stress and Ectomycorrhizal Root – Shoot Signaling 368
1 Ozone Stress and Belowground Processes 368
2 Cytokinins and the Natural Environment 369
3 Cytokinin Relations in Mycorrhiza 371
4 Ozone Effects on Roots and Ectomycorrhiza of Young and Adult Beech Trees 374
5 Root–Shoot Signaling in Ozone Fumigated Beech Trees 382
References 385
Part IV Biotechnology 390
From Production to Application of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Agricultural Systems: Requirements and Needs 392
1 Introduction 392
2 Basic Requirements for Sustainable Agricultural Systems 393
3 Plants as Part of the Mycorrhizal Symbiosis 395
4 Conclusions 401
References 402
Agronomic Management of Indigenous Mycorrhizas 406
1 Introduction 406
2 Use of AM Fungal Inoculum 407
3 Crop Rotation 408
4 Soil Aggregation and Tillage Regime 410
5 Weeds and AM Fungi 414
6 Nutrient Management 416
7 Fungicides and AM Fungi 422
8 Evaluation of AM Fungal Diversity 423
9 Conclusion 424
References 425
AM Inoculation in Tropical Agriculture: Field Results 434
1 Introduction 434
2 Production Modes 436
3 Research and Priorities for the Future 445
References 446
The International Market Development for Mycorrhizal Technology 450
1 Introduction 450
2 Commercialization 451
3 Cultural and Social Aspects 455
4 Technologies 456
5 Selling Points and Marketing Strategies for Mycorrhizal Technology 457
6 Inoculum Productions and Quality Assurance 462
7 Intellectual Properties and their Effect on Market Development 464
8 Research that will Affect the Development of the Global Market for Mycorrhizal Fungi 464
9 Conclusions 466
References 467
Why and How Using Micropropagated Trees rather than Germinations for Controlled Synthesis of Ectomycorrhizal Associations? 470
1 Introduction 470
2 Variations in Morphology, Physiology and Architecture during Tree Development, Consequences on EM Symbiosis and Culture Models for Their Study 471
3 Tree Cuttings and Microcuttings for Controlled Synthesis of EM Symbiosis 473
4 Micropropagation of an Episodic Growing Tree: The Oak Model (Quercus robur L.) 476
5 Conclusions 489
6 Outlook 489
References 490
Biotechnology and Cultivation of Desert Truffles 498
1 Introduction 498
2 Chemical Composition 499
3 Biotechnological Aspects 501
4 Cultivation of the Desert Truffle 509
Plantation 509
Establishment and Management 509
References 512
The Fungal Transmitted Viruses 516
1 Introduction 516
2 Fungi Transmitting Plant Viruses 517
3 Viruses Transmitted by Plasmodiophorids 524
4 Mycorrhiza and Viruses 530
References 531
Part V Eco-Physiology 536
Intertwined Existence: The Life of Plant Symbiotic Fungi in Agricultural Soils 538
1 Introduction 538
2 Fertilizer Impact on Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi 539
3 Soil Tillage 542
4 Pest Control 544
5 The Selection of Rotation Crops 546
6 Spatial and Seasonal Variations Influencing Symbiotic Fungi in Pastures 547
7 Symbiotic Fungi Biotechnology 550
8 Conclusion 551
References 552
Macroecology of Microbes – Biogeography of the Glomeromycota 560
1 Introduction 560
2 Challenges and Benefits of Elucidating Glomeromycotan Biogeography 564
3 Conclusions 587
References 588
Arbuscular Mycorrhiza of Endangered Plant Species: Potential Impacts on Restoration Strategies 596
1 Introduction 596
2 Diversity of AMF 596
3 Factors Causing a Change in the AMF Community 598
4 Identification and Assessment of AMF Colonization 599
5 Inoculum: Indigenous Versus Exotic Fungi 600
6 Restoration 601
7 Interactions with Other Soil Microorganisms 602
8 Mycorrhization of Endangered Medicinal Plants: A Special Case 603
9 Outlook 604
References 606
Community Developmental Patterns and Ecological Functions of Ectomycorrhizal Fungi: Implications from Primary Succession 612
1 Introduction 612
2 Volcanoes: Unique Field Sites for EMF Studies 613
3 Developmental Patterns of EMF Communities 615
4 Ecological Role of EMF 623
References 627
Colonization of Plant Roots by Pseudomonads and AM Fungi: A Dynamic Phenomenon, Affecting Plant Growth and Health 632
1 Introduction 632
2 Plant Root Colonization by Bacterial Cells 633
3 Dynamic of the Spatio-Temporal Pattern of Root Colonization by Fluorescent Pseudomonads 635
4 AM Fungi 640
5 Conclusions 648
References 649
In vitro Cultures Open New Prospects for Basic Research in Arbuscular Mycorrhizas 658
1 Introduction 658
2 The Use of Monoxenic Cultures in Basic AM Research: Advantages, Drawbacks and Future Challenges 666
3 Three New in vitro Techniques That Will Make AM Research Easier 675
4 Conclusions 681
References 681
Interactions of Piriformospora indica with Medicinal Plants 686
1 Introduction 686
2 The Medicinal Plants 687
3 Piriformospora indica – Model Symbiotic Fungus 694
4 Interaction Between Novel Symbiotic Fungus and Medicinal Plants 700
Conclusion 705
References 706
In vivo Assessment of Stress Impact on Plant’s Vitality: Applications in Detecting and Evaluating the Beneficial Role of Mycorrhization on Host Plants 710
1 Introduction 710
2 Assessing Plant’s Vitality in Terms of Activity and Adaptability: Theoretical Frame and Experimental Procedure 711
3 Case studies: Mycorrhization Effectiveness Probed by the JIP- test 719
4 Conclusions 731
References 732
Part VI Structure and Systematics 736
Edible Mycorrhizal Fungi: Identification, Life Cycle and Morphogenesis 738
1 Introduction 738
2 From Morphological to Molecular Identification Tuber and Boletus – A Two Case Study
3 The Life Cycle of Edible Mycorrhizal Fungi 748
4 Conclusion 755
References 755
Arbuscular Mycorrhiza in Physiological and Morphological Adaptations of Mediterranean Plants 764
1 Introduction 764
2 Physiological and Morphological Changes in Shoots due to AM Symbiosis 766
3 Physiologial and Morphological Changes in Roots due to AM Symbiosis 772
4 Root Morphology 775
Conclusions 778
References 780
Novel Symbiotrophic Endophytes 784
1 Introduction 784
2 Strategy for Endophyte Discovery 785
3 Case Study: Priformospora indica – A New Champion of Symbiosis 789
4 Conclusions 794
References 794
Frankia Nodulation, Mycorrhization and Interactions Between Frankia and Mycorrhizal Fungi in Casuarina Plants 798
1 Introduction 798
2 Frankia Nodulation 801
3 Mycorrhization 803
4 Interactions of Frankia and Mycorrhizal Fungi 805
5 Conclusion 807
References 808
Index 814