Infancy

Dana Gross is professor of psychology at St. Olaf College, where she teaches infant development and developmental psychology. She has been a faculty member at St. Olaf since 1988. In teaching, research, and scholarship, she emphasizes the interplay of nature and nurture, cross-cultural variations in beliefs and practices, practical applications of research findings, ethical community engagement, and policy considerations. She has developed short-term study abroad courses in India, China, and Norway, as well as student assignments to promote global learning in her on-campus courses.

Preface

Chapter 1: Beliefs about Babies: Historical Perspectives on Children and Childhood

Chapter Overview

Learning Objectives

Why Do We Study Infants?

Development as Transformation

Impact of Early Experience

Research Methods and Tools

Interdisciplinary Collaboration

Recurring Themes in the Study of Child Development

The Path of Development: Stages versus Continuous Change

Heredity and the Environment

Active or Passive Development?

Typical and Atypical Development

Culture and Context in Historical Perspective

Historical Perspectives on Infancy and Early Childhood

Historical Studies of Children and Childhood

Views of Children

Family Life

The Development of the Field of Child Development

Child Development Research, Theory, and Practice

G. Stanley Hall

Maria Montessori

John Watson

Arnold Gesell

Anna Freud

Margaret Mahler

Myrtle McGraw

John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth

Child Development Organizations

Conclusion

Wrapping It Up

Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion

Key Words

Chapter 2: Research Methods

Chapter Overview

Learning Objectives

Issues in Research with Infants

Ethical Concerns

Behavioral State

Inference and Interpretation

Research Settings

Naturalistic Studies

Laboratory Studies

Research Designs

Case Studies and Single-Subject Research

Quasi-Experimental Studies

Experimental Studies

Research Designs for Studying Development

Longitudinal Research

Cross-Sectional Research

Microgenetic Research

Research Measures

Psychophysiological Responses

Behavioral Measures

Parental Reports

Wrapping It Up : Summary and Conclusion

Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion

Key Words

Chapter 3: Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development

Chapter Overview

Learning Objectives

Genetics and the Human Genome

Genetic Diseases and Disorders

Genetics and Prenatal Development

Conception

Sex Chromosome Abnormalities

Twins and Other Multiples

Infertility and Assisted Reproduction

Prenatal Development

The Germinal Stage, Fertilization to Two Weeks

The Embryonic Stage, Two to Eight Weeks

The Fetal Stage, Eight Weeks to Birth (38 Weeks)

Congenital Anomalies

Neural Tube Defects

Congenital Heart Defects

Prenatal Screening, Diagnosis, and Treatment

Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD)

Ultrasound

Maternal Blood Screening

Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)

Amniocentesis

Fetal Echocardiography

Fetal Therapy

Prenatal Influences

Nutrition

Alcohol and Drugs

Disease

Stress

Environmental Hazards

Paternal Influences

Wrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion

Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion

Key Words

Chapter 4: Birth and the Newborn

Chapter Overview

Learning Objectives

The Birth Process: Stages of Childbirth

The First Stage: Contractions, Dilatation, and Effacement

The Second Stage: Delivery of the Infant

The Third Stage: Placental Expulsion

Complications of Childbirth

Failure to Progress

Breech Presentation

Preterm Birth

Low Birthweight

Post-Term Birth

Twins and Other Multiple Births

Childbirth Options

Medical Interventions

Hospital or Home?

Neonatal Assessment

Assessment at Birth

Reflexes

Sensory Abilities

Adaptations during the Neonatal Period

Wrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion

Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion

Key Words

Chapter 5: Physical Growth, Health, and Nutrition

Chapter Overview

Learning Objectives

Physical Growth

Measuring and Predicting Growth

Failure to Thrive

Brain Development

Maltreatment and the Brain

Health and Safety

Newborn Screening

Screening for Lead Poisoning

Infant Mortality

Common Illnesses and Immunizations

Accidental Injuries

Sudden Unexplained Infant Death

Nutrition and Feeding

Nutritional Requirements in Infancy

Breast Milk

Nutritional Requirements in Toddlerhood

The Problem of Malnutrition

Wrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion

Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion

Key Words

Chapter 6: Sensation, Perception, and Motor Development

Chapter Overview

Learning Objectives

Theories of Infant Perception

Vision

Newborn Abilities

Perceiving Objects

Perceiving Depth

Perceiving Images on Screens

Hearing

Locating Sounds

Perceiving Speech

Listening to Music

Music Perception

Touch

Reflexes

Pain

Taste

Innate Preferences

Effects of Experience

Smell

Innate Preferences

Effects of Experience

Other Senses, Intermodal and Cross-Modal Perception

Other Senses

Intermodal Abilities

Cross-Modal Abilities

Motor Development

Assessing Motor Development

Fine Motor Skills: Reaching, Grasping, and Using Tools

Gross Motor Skills: Sitting, Crawling, and Walking

The Cultural Context

Wrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion

Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion

Key Words

Chapter 7: Play and Foundational Theories about Cognitive Development

Chapter Overview

Learning Objectives

The Development of Play

Play with Objects

Social Play

Pretend/Symbolic Play

Piaget’s Theory: Constructing and Representing Knowledge

Sensorimotor and Preoperational Intelligence

Object Permanence

The A-Not-B Error

Understanding and Using Representations of Space

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory: Learning as A Social Activity

The Zone of Proximal Development

Guided Participation

Wrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion

Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion

Key Words

Chapter 8: Cognitive Science and Intelligence

Chapter Overview

Learning Objectives

Cognitive Science Perspectives

Attention

Gaze Following, Joint Attention, and Theory of Mind

Memory

Categorization

Defining and Testing Intelligence in Infancy

Traditional Tests

Information-Processing Assessments

Wrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion

Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion

Key Words

Chapter 9: Language and Communication

Chapter Overview

Learning Objectives

Studying Language Development

Why Language Matters

Systems of Language

Theoretical Foundations

Prelinguistic Communication

Receptivity to Language

Speech Perception

Early Production: Babbling

Gestural Communication

Semantic Development

Milestones in the Acquisition of Meaning

One-Word Utterances

Individual Differences in Language Experience

Explaining Early Word Learning

The Acquisition of Grammar

Multiword Utterances

Overregularization

Cross-Linguistic Studies of the Acquisition of Grammar

Atypical Language Development

Measuring Language Development

Early Language Delay and Specific Language Impairment

Language and Communication in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Wrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion

Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion

Key Words

Chapter 10: Relationships and Social Development

Chapter Overview

Learning Objectives

Infant–Caregiver Relationships

Patterns of Care and Interaction: Beliefs about Infants

Cross-Cultural Differences in Mothers’ Involvement

Father–Infant Caregiving and Interaction

Cross-Cultural Differences in Fathers’ Involvement

Postpartum Depression

The Influence of Culture and Context

How Postpartum Depression Affects Infants

Intervention Approaches

Developing Trust, Becoming Attached

Bowlby’s Theory of Infant–Caregiver Attachment

Assessing Attachment Relationships

Attachment and Subsequent Development

Sibling Relationships

Becoming a Sibling

How Siblings Contribute to Development

Peer Relationships and Friendship

Peer Interactions

Friendship

Wrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion

Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion

Key Words

Chapter 11: Temperament, Emotions, and the Self

Chapter Overview

Learning Objectives

Temperament

Defining and Measuring Temperament

Temperament and Biology

Temperament and Attachment

Temperament and Personality

Emotions

Theories of Emotion

Expressing Emotions

Perceiving Emotions

Parent Influences on Emotion Development

Regulating Emotions

Developing and Using Social Emotions

The Self

Recognizing the Self

Wrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion

Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion

Key Words

Chapter 12: Childcare and Early Intervention

Chapter Overview

Learning Objectives

Childcare

Maternal Employment

Parental Leave Policies

Childcare Arrangements

Effects of Childcare: The NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development

Including Children with Disabilities in Childcare

Early Intervention

Poverty as a Risk Factor: Implications for Prevention and Intervention

Early Intervention through Childcare and Preschool

Early Head Start

Measuring the Impact of Early Childhood Intervention

Wrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion

Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion

Key Words

Glossary

References

Index

About the Author