Principles of Research in Behavioral Science

Mary E. Kite is Professor of Social Psychology at Ball State University, USA. She received her Ph.D. from Purdue University. Her research focuses on stereotyping and prejudice toward women, gays and lesbians, and older adults. She has served as President of The Society for the Teaching of Psychology (STP, APA Division 2) and Secretary-Treasurer and President of the Midwestern Psychological Association (MPA). She is a Fellow of APA Divisions 2, 8, 9, 35, and 44 and of the Association for Psychological Science and MPA. In 2014, she received the Charles L. Brewer Distinguished Teaching Award from the American Psychological Foundation. She co-authored the third edition of The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination with Bernard E. Whitley, Jr. Bernard E. Whitley, Jr. is Professor Emeritus of Psychological Science at Ball State University, USA. He received his Ph.D. in Social Psychology from the University of Pittsburgh. He is a Fellow of the American Psychological Association and charter member and Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science. His research interests focus on the roles of ideological variables in prejudice, and he has published in many journals including Psychological Bulletin, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, and Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. His other books include The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination with Mary E. Kite and Academic Dishonesty: An Educator’s Guide (2002) with Patricia Keith-Spiegel.

Part 1. Introduction


Chapter 1: Behavioral Science


Science


Goals of Science


Key Values of Science


Scientific Approaches to Knowledge


Theories


Components of Theories


Characteristics of Theories


Purposes of Theories


Criteria for Evaluating Theories


Research


The Research Process


Evaluating Research


Inference in Research


Theory, Research, and Application


The Interdependence of Theory, Research, and Application


The Uses of Behavioral Science and Theory


Chapter Summary


Suggestions for Further Reading


Key Terms


References


Chapter 2: Research Strategies: An Overview


Purposes of Research


Basic and Applied Research


Evaluation Research


Action Research


Quantitative and Qualitative Research


Research Strategies


The Experimental Strategy


The Case Study Strategy


The Correlational Strategy


Comparing the Strategies


Time Perspectives: Short Term Versus Long Term


Developmental Research


Prospective Research


Outcome Evaluation


Research Settings: Laboratory Versus Field


Research Strategies and Research Settings


Research Settings and Research Participants


Chapter Summary


Suggestions for Further Readings


Key Terms


References


Chapter 3: The Ethical Treatment of Research Participants


Responsibility for Ethical Research


Ethical Considerations While Planning Research


Risk of Harm or Deprivation


Voluntary Participation


Informed Consent


Deception


Ethical Obligations During Data Collection


Avoidance of Harm


Withdrawal of Consent


Ethical Considerations Following Data Collection


Alleviating Adverse Effects


Debriefing


Compensation of Control Groups


Confidentiality of Data


The Institutional Review Board


Membership of the IRB


Criteria for approving research


Review procedures


Research Ethics in Cultural Context


Examples of Ethical Issues


Some Guidelines


Chapter Summary


Suggested Readings


Key Terms


References


Part 2: Foundations of Research


Chapter 4: The Professional and Social Responsibilities of Scientists


Mistakes and Errors in Research


Consequences of Error


Incompetence and Negligence


Questionable Research Practices


Correcting Mistakes and Errors


Scientific Misconduct


Data Fabrication


Preventing Scientific Misconduct


Ethical Issues in Publication


Authorship Credit


Duplicate Publication


Plagiarism


Using the Results of Research


The Application of Research Results


Influencing Decision Makers


Researcher’s Responsibilities


Research and the Common Good


Is Applied Research More Ethical Than Basic Research?


Should Research on Some Topics Be Banned or Restricted?


Is There an Ethical Obligation to Conduct Research?


Chapter Summary


Suggestions for Further Reading


Key Terms


References


Chapter 5: Formulating a Research Question


Formulating Research Hypotheses


Establishing a Background


Choosing a Topic


Formulating the Question


Reviewing the Literature


Formulating Hypotheses


Designing the Study


Writing the Research Proposal


Replication Research


Forms of Replication


Interpreting the Results of Replication Research


Considerations in Conducting Replication Research


Replication as Part of a Systematic Research Program


Designing Research for Utilization


Knowledge Utilization


Design Considerations


Dissemination of Research Results


Bias in the Formulation of Research Questions


Personal Values


Biased Assumptions


Avoiding Bias


Chapter Summary


Suggestions for Further Reading


Key Terms


References


Chapter 6: Developing a Measurement Strategy


Reliability and Validity


Manifest Variables and Hypothetical Constructs


Reliability, Validity, and Measurement Error


Assessing Reliability


Forms of Reliability


Choosing Among the Forms of Reliability


Standards for Reliability


Item Response Theory


Assessing Validity


Categories of Validity Evidence


Discriminant Validity


Relationships Among the Categories of Validity Evidence


Determining a Measure’s Degree of Validity


Modalities of Measurement


Self-Report Measures


Behavioral Measures


Physiological Measures


Implicit Measures


Choosing a Measurement Modality


Locating and Evaluating Measures


Categories of Measures


Locating Measures


Evaluating Measures


Chapter Summary


Suggestions for Further Reading


Key Terms


References


Chapter 7: The Internal Validity of Research


Confounds


Natural Confounds


Treatment Confounds


Measurement Confounds


Threats to Internal Validity


Time-Related Threats


Control Groups in Pretest-Posttest Research


Theoretical Validity


Selection Threats


Volunteer bias


Preexisting groups


Mortality


Reactivity


Sources of Reactivity


Evaluation apprehension


Controlling Reactivity


Demand Characteristics


Sources of Demand Characteristics


Participant Roles


Controlling Demand Characteristics


Experimenter Expectancies


Types of Expectancy Effects


Techniques of Control


Enhancing Internal Validity


Summary


Suggestions for Further Reading


Key Terms


References


Chapter 8: The External Validity of Research


The Concept of External Validity


Aspects of External Validity


Components of External Validity


The Structural Components of External Validity


Setting Factors


Participant Sample Factors


Research Procedure Factors


Cultural Factors


Time Factors


Time sampling


Changes over time


The Functional and Conceptual Components of External Validity


The Functional Component


The Conceptual Component


Relationships Among the Components of External Validity


Assessing External Validity


Assessing Generalizability


Assessing Ecological Validity


Laboratory Research, Natural Setting Research, and External Validity


Laboratory Research and Ecological Validity


External Validity and Internal Validity


Chapter Summary


Suggestions for Further Reading


Key Terms


References


Part 3: Research Design


Chapter 9: True Experiments


Manipulating the Independent Variables


Conditions of the Independent Variable


Additional Control and Comparison Conditions


Characteristics of a Good Manipulation


Using Multiple Stimuli


Controlling Extraneous Variance


Holding Extraneous Variables Constant


Between-Subjects Designs


Within-Subjects Designs


Multiple-Group Designs


Quantitative Independent Variables


Qualitative Independent Variables


Interpreting the Results of Multiple-Group Experiments


Factorial Designs


The Nature of Factorial Designs


Interaction Effects


Forms of Factorial Designs


Uses for Factorial Designs


Chapter Summary


Suggestions for Further Readings


Key Terms


References


Chapter 10: Field Research


The Problem of Control in Field Settings


Control Over Variables


Control Over Research Populations


Field Experiments


Choosing a Research Setting


Implementing the Independent Variable


Problems in Field Experimentation


Natural Experiments and Quasi-Experiments


The Group Comparison Approach


The Time Series Approach


Naturalistic Observation


Categories of Naturalistic Observation


Nonparticipant observation


Coding Natural Behaviors


Problems in Naturalistic Observation


Chapter Summary


Suggestions for Further Reading


Key Terms


References


Chapter 11: Correlational Designs


The Nature of Correlational Research


Simple Correlation Analysis


Assumptions of Linearity and Additivity


Factors Affecting the Correlation Coefficient


Multifaceted Constructs


Some Recommendations


Partial Correlation Analysis


Multiple Regression Analysis (MRA)


Forms of MRA


Information Provided by MRA


The Problem of Multicollinearity


MRA as an Alternative to ANOVA


Some Other Correlational Techniques


Logistic Regression Analysis


Multiway Frequency Analysis


Data Types and Data Analysis


Chapter Summary


Suggestions for Further Reading


Key Terms


References


Chapter 12: Factor Analysis, Path Analysis, and Structural Equation Modeling


Exploratory Factor Analysis


Uses of Exploratory Factor Analysis


Considerations in Exploratory Factor Analysis


Confirmatory Factor Analysis


Hypothesis Testing


Measure Validation


Evaluating Goodness of Fit


Testing Mediational Hypotheses


The Causal Steps Strategy


Path Analysis with Observed Variables


Structural Equation Modeling


Prospective Research


Limits on Interpretation


Chapter Summary


Suggestions for Further Reading


Key Terms


References


Chapter 13: The Single-Case Research Strategy


The Role of Single-Case Research in Psychology


Some History


Uses of Single-Case Research


Validity Criteria in Single-Case Research


Measurement Criteria


Replication Criteria


Control Criteria


Impact Criteria


Treatment Criteria


Case Study Research


Choosing Cases to Study


Data Collection


Single-Case Experiments


Designs for Single-Case Experiments


The Importance of a Stable Baseline


Data Analysis in Single-Case Research


Qualitative Data


Quantitative Data


Chapter Summary


Suggestions for Further Reading


Key Terms


References


Chapter 14: Qualitative Research and Interviewing


Rachel Kraus, Ball State University


The Purpose and Goals of Qualitative Research


The Nature of Qualitative Research


Key Characteristics of Qualitative Research


Qualitative Research Questions


How to Choose a Qualitative Research Question


Qualitative Research as "Work"


How is Qualitative Research Evaluated?


Reliability in Qualitative Research


Validation Strategies


Trustworthiness


Designing Qualitative Research


Grounded Theory


Ethnography


Sampling


Non-probability Samples in Qualitative Research


Sample Size and Theoretical Saturation


Data Collection


Qualitative Interviews


After the Interview


Transcription


Data Analysis


Coding


Interpreting the Data


The Use of Software Programs in Qualitative Research


Writing About Qualitative Research


Reflexivity and Representation


Audience


Encoding


Using Participants’ Quotes


Writing Strategies Across Qualitative Approaches


Chapter Summary


Suggestions for Further Reading


Key Terms


References


Chapter 15: Survey Research


Asking Questions


Open- and Closed-Ended Questions


Question Wording


Obtaining Answers


Levels of Measurement


Response Formats


Choosing a Response Format


Multi-Item Scales


Advantages of Multi-Item Scales


Types of Multi-Item Scales


Response Biases


Question-Related Biases


Person-Related Biases


Cultural Response Sets


Interpreting Responses


Questionnaire Design


Question Order


Constructing Questionnaire


Instructions


Using Existing Measures


Questionnaire Administration


Group Administration


Online Surveys


Telephone Interviews


In-Person Interviews


Comparing the Methods


Chapter Summary


Suggestions for Further Reading


Key Terms


References


Part 4: Collecting and Interpreting Data


Chapter 16: Evaluation Research


Goal Definition


Needs Assessment


Evaluability Assessment


Program Monitoring


The Target Population


Program Implementation


Unintended Effects


Program Monitoring and Program Development


Impact Assessment


Criteria for Evaluating Impact


Answering the Research Questions


Research Designs


Interpreting Null Results


Sources of null results


When "null" results are not null


Efficiency Analysis


Cost-Benefit Analysis


Cost-Effectiveness Analysis


Information Utilization


Criteria for Research Utilization


The Political Context


Measuring Change


Difference Scores


The Reliable Change Index


Chapter Summary


Suggestions for Further Reading


Key Terms


References


Chapter 17: Data Collection


Research Participants


Populations and Samples


Sampling


Sample Size


Research Procedures


Effective Research Settings


Effective Instructions


"Debugging" the Procedure


The Data Collection Session


The Post-Experimental Interview


Research Assistants


Using the Internet to Collect Data


The Validity of Web-Based Data


Advantages of Internet Research


Limitations of Internet Research


Participant Recruitment


Ethical Issues


Archival Data


Types of Archives


Advantages of Archival Data


Limitations of Archival Data


Chapter Summary


Suggestions for Further Reading


Key Terms


References


Chapter 18: Interpreting Research Results


Describing the Results of the Research


The Nature of the Relationship


Real Versus Chance Relationships


Effect Size and Importance


Inference in Behavioral Science Research


Knowledge as a Social Construction


Bias in Interpreting Data


Making Valid Inferences


Null Results


Uses of the Null Hypothesis


Prejudice Against the Null Hypothesis


Accepting the Null Hypothesis


Integrating the Results of Research


Identifying Implications for Theory


Identifying Implications for Research


Identifying Implications for Application


Chapter Summary


Suggestions for Further Reading


Key Terms


References


Chapter 19: Literature Reviewing


Purposes of Literature Reviews


Conceptual Literature Reviews


Integrative Literature Reviews


Defining the Research Question


The Scope of the Question


Approaches to Answering the Question


Finding Relevant Research


Deciding Which Studies to Use


Include All Studies


Include Only Published Studies


Include Only Valid Studies


Stratified Sampling


Expert Judgment


Integrating the Results of Primary Research


Levels of Analysis


Operationally Defining Study Outcome


Narrative Literature Reviews


Meta-Analysis


Meta-synthesis


Best Evidence Literature Reviewing


Interpreting the Results


The Effects of Judgment Calls


The Correlational Nature of Moderator Variable Analyses


Meaning versus Numbers in Meta-Analysis


Evaluating Literature Reviews


Understanding Meta-Analysis


Defining the Research Question


Locating Relevant Research


Deciding Which Studies to Include


Integrating the Results of the Studies


Interpreting the Results of the Meta-Analysis


Chapter Summary


Suggestions for Further Reading


Key Terms


References