Religion and Spirituality Across Cultures (eBook)

Chu Kim-Prieto, PhD specializes in Positive Psychology and Cross-Cultural Psychology.  She has published research on happiness, cross-cultural psychology of emotion, and psychology of religion and spirituality in peer-reviewed journals and edited volumes. She is on the Editorial Board of the Journal of Happiness and is the incoming Associate Editor of the Asian American Journal of Psychology. 

Contents 6
Chapter 1: Introduction: Positive Psychology of Religion Across Traditions and Beliefs 8
1.1 Psychology of Religion 9
1.2 Positive Psychology 10
1.3 Religion’s Contributions to Well-Being and Life Well Lived 11
1.3.1 Social Support and Social Capital 13
1.3.2 Meaning and Purpose 14
1.3.3 Emotion 15
1.3.4 Coping 15
1.4 Influence on Well Being Across Religions 16
1.4.1 Present Volume 18
References 21
Part I: Positive Psychology within the Context of Specific Religions 26
Chapter 2: Virtues That Transcend: Positive Psychology in Jewish Texts and Tradition 27
2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Appreciation of Beauty and Excellence 30
2.3 Gratitude 34
2.4 Hope 37
2.5 Humor 40
2.6 Spirituality 42
2.7 Relevant Psychology Research 45
2.8 Conclusion 48
References 48
Chapter 3: The Contributions of Christian Perspectives and Practices to Positive Psychology 52
3.1 Caveats 53
3.2 The Variety of Christian Experiences 54
3.3 Christian Theology and Practices as Sources of Well-Being 55
3.4 What Is Positive Psychology? 56
3.4.1 Christianity Benefits Society by Fostering Flourishing 58
3.4.1.1 Culture and Thought 59
3.4.1.2 The Arts 59
3.4.1.3 The Landscape 60
3.4.1.4 Education 60
3.4.1.5 The Individual and His or Her Relationships with Society and the World 61
3.4.1.6 A Way of Life 62
3.4.1.7 A Motive to Transform the World for the Better 62
3.4.1.8 Summary of Our Historical and Cultural Look at Christianity and Flourishing 63
3.5 Christianity’s Contributions to Positive Psychology 63
3.5.1 Virtues: Secular and Christian 63
3.5.2 Secular and Christian Telos 65
3.6 How Does Christianity Promote Flourishing? 66
3.6.1 Religion’s Relationship to an Individual’s Flourishing 67
3.6.2 Religion Promotes Self-Control and Self-Regulation, Which Promotes Flourishing 68
3.6.3 Religion and Goal Pursuit 69
3.6.4 Religion Promotes Other Virtues 70
3.7 Summary and Future Directions 71
References 72
Chapter 4: Religiosity and Well-Being in a Muslim Context 76
4.1 The Religion of Islam 77
4.1.1 The Qur’an 77
4.1.2 Muhammad: The Messenger of God and Prophet 78
4.1.3 Fundamentals of Islam 78
4.1.4 The Five Pillars of Islam 79
4.2 Islamic Practices That Foster SWB 80
4.3 Empirical Evidence Supporting Religiosity and SWB 81
4.3.1 Religiosity and the Good Life 82
4.3.2 Religiosity, SWB, and Psychopathology 83
4.4 Conclusion 86
References 87
Chapter 5: Fostering Meaning, Social Connection, and Well-Being Through Hindu Beliefs and Practices 91
5.1 A Brief Overview of Hindu Beliefs 91
5.1.1 A Focus on Ethical Actions over Particular Beliefs 92
5.1.2 Non-judgment of Others’ Beliefs 93
5.1.3 Karma 93
5.2 Hindu Beliefs That Foster Well-Being 94
5.2.1 Belief in Karma Creates Meaning Through a Cumulative View of Reality 94
5.2.2 Beliefs in Karma and an Interconnected Universe Discourage Harmful Social Comparisons 95
5.3 Hindu Practices That Foster Well-Being 98
5.3.1 Practitioners May Choose Which Deity to Worship 98
5.3.2 Practitioners Cultivate Individual Introspection Through Prayer, Meditation, and Yoga 99
5.3.3 Practitioners Cultivate Interconnectedness Through Frequent Festivals and Pujas 101
5.4 Conclusion 102
References 102
Chapter 6: Buddhism and Positive Psychology 105
6.1 Buddhist Philosophy and Positive Psychology 106
6.2 Neurobiological and Clinical Research 108
6.2.1 Self 110
6.2.2 Emotion 110
6.2.3 Attention 111
6.2.4 Clinical Research 112
6.3 Ethnographic Research on Buddhism in Thailand 115
6.3.1 Self 116
6.3.2 Emotion 118
6.3.3 Mindfulness and Impermanence 120
6.4 Conclusion 122
References 124
Chapter 7: Sikhism and Positive Psychology 129
7.1 Sikh History 130
7.2 Sikh Beliefs and Symbols 130
7.3 Sikhism’s Contributions to Positive Functioning and Well Being 131
7.3.1 Collectivism and Interdependence on Family, Community and Religion 131
7.3.1.1 Path 132
7.3.2 Community Service and Langar 133
7.3.2.1 Sikh Youth Camps 134
7.3.3 Discrimination 134
7.3.3.1 The Fight for Social Justice 136
7.3.3.2 Oak Creek Hate Crime 136
7.3.4 God’s Will 137
7.3.5 Heroism and Martyrdom 138
7.4 Conclusion 138
References 139
Chapter 8: American Indian Traditional Ways: Convergence and Divergence with Positive Psychology 141
8.1 Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Positive Psychology 141
8.2 This Is a Way of Life, Not a Religion 142
8.3 Trouble in Paradise 143
8.4 Language 145
8.5 The World Hangs in Balance 146
8.6 Land, Place, Time and Space 146
8.7 Relationships/Naming 146
8.8 Earth World: Plants, Animals, Minerals, Water, and Other Earth People 147
8.9 Sky World: Stars and Other Sky People 148
8.10 Wellness and the Traditional Upbringing 148
8.10.1 The Relationship Between Positive Psychology and Traditional AI Worldview 148
8.10.2 Wisdom and Knowledge 150
8.10.3 Courage 151
8.10.4 Humanity 151
8.10.5 Justice 151
8.10.6 Temperance 152
8.10.7 Transcendence 152
8.11 The Psychology of Interconnectedness: Balance Is Wellness 153
8.12 Positive Psychology in Indian Country 155
8.13 Training for a Psychology of Interconnectedness: A Call to the Field 157
8.13.1 Healer, Heal Thy Self—And the Profession Will Follow 158
8.14 Afterword 160
8.15 Partnering with Sanctioned Healers and Spiritual Leaders 160
8.15.1 Investing Time 160
8.15.2 Willingness to Submit 160
8.15.3 Sanctioning 161
8.15.4 Integration of Techniques 162
References 162
Part II: Variations in the Paths to Positivity and Religiosity 164
Chapter 9: Religiosity and Subjective Well-Being: An International Perspective 165
9.1 Defining the Constructs: Religiosity and Subjective Well-Being 166
9.2 Evidence from the United States and Other Western Industrialized Societies 166
9.3 Pan-Cultural Positivity? 167
9.3.1 Individual-Level 168
9.3.2 Nation-Level 169
9.3.3 Summary 173
9.4 Contextual Moderators 173
9.5 Future Research Directions 174
9.6 Conclusion 175
References 175
Chapter 10: Religious/Spiritual Meaning Systems: Multiple Pathways to Well-Being 178
10.1 Meaning Systems 178
10.2 Religious Meaning Systems 179
10.2.1 Religion and Global Beliefs 180
10.2.2 Religion and Global Goals 181
10.3 R/S Meaning Systems and Well-Being 182
10.3.1 Research on Global Religious Beliefs and Well-Being 182
10.3.1.1 Belief in Life After Death 184
10.3.1.2 Karma 185
10.3.1.3 Other Religious Beliefs 185
10.3.2 Research on Global Religious Goals and Well-Being 186
10.4 Pathways Through Which RS Meaning Systems May Affect Well-Being 186
10.4.1 Religious Meaning and Self-Determination 187
10.4.2 Religious Meaning as Fulfilling Existential Needs 189
10.4.2.1 Coherence 189
10.4.2.2 Uncertainty 190
10.4.2.3 Mortality 190
10.4.2.4 Sense of Meaning/Purpose 190
10.4.3 Self-Regulation 191
10.4.4 Religious Meaning as Adaptive Coping with Stress 193
10.4.5 Promotion of Positive Psychological States 194
10.4.5.1 Mindfulness 194
10.4.5.2 Compassion 194
10.4.5.3 Gratitude 195
10.4.5.4 Forgiveness 195
10.4.5.5 Hope 195
10.5 Conclusions 196
References 197
Chapter 11: Mindfulness, Consciousness, Spirituality, and Well-Being 203
11.1 What Is Mindfulness? 204
11.2 Benefits of Mindfulness 207
11.3 Mechanisms of Mindfulness 210
11.4 Mindfulness as an Altered State of Consciousness 215
11.5 Conclusions and Implications 217
References 219
Chapter 12: Mind-Body Practices and the Neuro-­psychology of Wellbeing 226
12.1 Breath Practices, the Foundation of Yoga and Other Mind-Body Techniques 227
12.2 Effects on Stress Response, Emotion Regulation, Bonding, Compassion, and Spirituality 228
12.2.1 Stress Response Systems 228
12.2.2 Emotion Regulation 230
12.2.3 Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) 230
12.2.4 Self-Regulation 231
12.2.5 Attachment, Bonding, Love, Empathy and Compassion 232
12.3 Yoga Therapy in Relation to Wellbeing 234
Sudan Program Evaluation 237
Letters from Rwanda 238
12.4 Neurophysiologic Model for the Effects of Yoga Breathing 239
12.5 Conclusions 241
References 241
Chapter 13: Religion, Emotion Regulation, and Well-Being 246
13.1 Culture and Emotion 247
13.2 Religion as a Unique Cultural System 248
13.3 Religion Sets Emotion Goals 249
13.3.1 Awe 249
13.3.2 Gratitude 250
13.3.3 Joy 251
13.3.4 Guilt 253
13.3.5 Hatred 253
13.4 Religion Influences Intrinsic Processes in Emotion Regulation 255
13.4.1 Self-Regulation Skills 255
13.4.2 Religion Influences Beliefs About the Malleability of Emotions 256
13.4.3 Religion Fosters the Use of Specific Emotion Regulation Strategies 256
13.4.3.1 Cognitive Reappraisal 257
13.4.3.2 Distraction 258
13.4.3.3 Expressive Suppression 258
13.5 Religion Influences Extrinsic Processes in Emotion Regulation 259
13.5.1 Religious Communities 259
13.5.2 Religious Rituals 259
13.6 Implications for Well-Being 260
13.6.1 Emotion Goals and Well-Being 261
13.6.2 Self-Regulation Skills and Well-Being 262
13.6.3 Implicit Beliefs and Well-Being 262
13.6.4 Emotion Regulation Strategies 262
13.6.5 Social Communities and Well-Being 263
13.6.6 Rituals and Well-Being 263
13.7 Conclusion 263
References 264
Chapter 14: Humility and Religion: Benefits, Difficulties, and a Model of Religious Tolerance 269
14.1 Religious Perspectives of Humility 270
14.2 Psychological Perspectives of Humility 272
14.3 Benefits of Humility 273
14.3.1 Physical Health 273
14.3.2 Mental Health 273
14.3.3 Performance 274
14.3.4 Relationships 274
14.4 Humility and Religious Convictions 275
14.5 A Model of Intellectual Humility and Religious Tolerance 278
14.6 Conclusion 280
References 281
Chapter 15: Gratitude and Spirituality: A Review of Theory and Research 284
15.1 Theoretical Approaches to Gratitude 285
15.1.1 Is Gratitude an Interpersonal or Intrapersonal Experience? 285
15.1.2 Applying Theories of Gratitude to Spirituality 286
15.1.3 Summary 288
15.2 Empirical Research on Gratitude and Spirituality 289
15.2.1 Is Gratitude Associated with Spirituality? 289
15.2.2 Why and How: Explaining the Gratitude-Spirituality Link 290
15.2.2.1 Does Spirituality Lead to More Gratitude? 290
15.2.2.2 Social Desirability in the Spirituality-Gratitude Relation 291
15.2.3 Gratitude and Spirituality Across Cultures and Religions 292
15.2.4 Summary of Existing Research and Future Directions 293
15.2.4.1 Does Spirituality Strengthen Gratitude, or Does Gratitude Strengthen Spirituality? 293
15.2.4.2 What Are the Mediators of the Spirituality-Gratitude Relation? 294
15.2.4.3 Does the Spirituality-Gratitude Link Replicate Across Cultures and Religions? 294
15.2.4.4 How Can Gratitude and Spirituality Be Measured Using Multiple Methods? 295
15.2.4.5 How Do General Theories of Gratitude Apply in Religious or Spiritual Contexts? 295
15.3 Conclusion 295
References 296
Chapter 16: Religion and Forgiveness of Others 299
16.1 Religious Rationales for Forgiving Others 300
16.1.1 Forgiveness and Judaism 300
16.1.2 Forgiveness and Christianity 301
16.1.3 Forgiveness and Islam 301
16.1.4 Forgiveness and Buddhism 302
16.1.5 Comparing Forgiveness Across Religious Traditions 302
16.2 How Religiosity Relates to Forgiveness 303
16.2.1 Comparisons Across Religious Groups 304
16.3 Forgiveness and Religious Practices 305
16.3.1 The Role of Sanctification and Desecration in Forgiveness 305
16.3.2 The Role of Prayer and Meditation in Forgiveness 306
16.3.3 Congregational Support for Forgiveness 308
16.4 Religious Forgiveness Interventions 308
16.4.1 Group Forgiveness Interventions 308
16.4.2 Community Forgiveness Interventions 310
16.5 Implications for Clinicians and Researchers 310
References 311
Chapter 17: Religious Ecstasy and Other Intense Emotions 315
17.1 A Neurophysiologic Model of Emotion 316
17.2 Interpretation and Experience: A Jamesian View 317
17.3 Mysticism: Religious and Secular 319
17.3.1 Constructionists vs. Common Core Theorists 320
17.3.2 Chemically Facilitated Mysticism 321
17.4 Ecstasy: Religious and Secular 322
17.4.1 The Commonality of Religious Ecstasy 322
17.4.2 Ecstasy in American Protestantism 324
17.4.3 The Commonality of Secular Ecstasy 325
17.4.4 Chemically Facilitated Ecstasy 325
17.5 Set and Setting Conditions for Ecstasy and Mysticism 326
References 329
Chapter 18: Spiritual Resilience and Struggle Following the Experience of a Stroke 332
18.1 Effects of Stroke on Well-Being 333
18.2 Characterizing Religion and Spirituality 333
18.3 Functions of Religion and Spirituality in Times of Crisis 334
18.4 Religion and Spirituality as a Source of Resilience 336
18.4.1 The Stress Mobilization Effect and Cross-Sectional Design 337
18.4.2 Reflections of Personal Characteristics in Religious and Spiritual Behaviors 338
18.4.3 Interactions Between Personal and Situational Characteristics 339
18.4.4 Summary 340
18.5 Religion and Spirituality as Sources of Struggle 340
18.5.1 Valence of Religiousness and Spirituality 341
18.5.2 Religious Commitment 342
18.5.3 Chronicity of Religious and Spiritual Problems 343
18.6 Intervention Studies 343
18.7 Conclusions 344
References 345
Chapter 19: Religiosity and Immigrant Family Narratives in Korean American Young Adults 349
19.1 Religion, Family, and Korean Americans 350
19.2 Narrating Religion and Immigrant Family Life 352
19.2.1 Redeeming Immigrant Parents 352
19.2.1.1 Korean American Students 352
19.2.1.2 Interview Procedures and Protocol 353
19.2.1.3 Data Analysis 354
19.2.2 Making Sense of Family Life Through Religious Narratives 354
19.2.3 Drawing on Christian Doctrine: Megan and Mary 355
19.2.4 Family Transformation: Jay and Esther 357
19.2.5 General Christian Milieu: David 359
19.3 Discussion 360
References 362