School Consultation (eBook)

William P. Erchul, Ph.D., is a Professor of Psychology at North Carolina State University, where he served as Director of the School Psychology Program from 1987 to 2004. He received his B.A. in Psychology and Communication Arts from the University of Wisconsin-Madison, and his Ph.D. in Educational Psychology with a specialization in School Psychology from the University of Texas at Austin. He has worked for the Human Interaction Research Institute in Los Angeles and has been a consultant to various North Carolina school systems, public agencies, and private businesses. Dr. Erchul is a Fellow of the American Psychological Association and the American Academy of School Psychology, a recipient of APA's Lightner Witmer Award (given in recognition of early career research contributions to the field of School Psychology), an elected member of the Society for the Study of School Psychology, a recipient of the North Carolina School Psychology Association's Excellence in Staff Development Award, and has been recognized as an outstanding faculty researcher at NCSU. He has been President of the North Carolina Inter-University Council on School Psychology; Vice-President of Publications, Communications, and Convention Affairs of APA’s Division of School Psychology; and Executive Producer of The Conversation Series for the Division of School Psychology. Dr. Erchul is board certified in school psychology by the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP) and has served as President of the American Academy of School Psychology. His primary research program centers on interpersonal processes and outcomes associated with psychological consultation. Dr. Erchul has produced approximately 100 journal articles, book chapters, and other scholarly works, as well as three books. He has been associate editor of School Psychology Quarterly and guest editor of special issues of the School Psychology Review and the Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation. He also has served on the editorial review boards of five scholarly journals. Brian K. Martens, Ph.D., is a Professor of Psychology and Associate Chair of the Psychology Department at Syracuse University. He received his B.S. in psychology from Colorado State University, and earned his Ph.D. in 1985 from the APA-approved program at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Dr. Martens’ research is concerned with translating findings from basic operant studies into effective school-based interventions, functional assessment and treatment of children’s classroom behavior problems, and the instructional hierarchy as a sequenced approach to skill building. His scholarly record includes more than 100 published research articles, books, chapters, and invited reviews in the areas of applied behavior analysis, school consultation, and instructional intervention. Dr. Martens is a past Associate Editor of the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis and School Psychology Quarterly, and currently serves as a Guest Associate Editor or Editorial Board member for five journals. Dr. Martens received the Lightner Witmer Award from Division 16 of APA in 1990, was named Outstanding Teacher of the Year at University College in 1995, and is a past member of the Board of Directors of the Society for the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. He was elected to Fellow status in Division 16 of APA in 1996, elected as a member of the Society for the Study of School Psychology in 2001, and named one of 90 Distinguished Alumni from the Teachers College at the University of Nebraska in 1997. Dr. Martens received the Editorial Appreciation Award from School Psychology Review in 2002 as well as the Excellence in Graduate Education Faculty Recognition Award from Syracuse University in 2006.

Preface 6
About the Authors 10
Contents 12
Part I Background 17
Chapter 1 18
Introduction to Consultation 18
The Effectiveness of Human Services Consultation 20
Historical Influences on the Human Services Consultant Role 21
Theoretical Issues 21
Professional Issues 22
Pragmatic Issues 23
Historical Influences on the School Consultant Role 24
Developments from the 1940s Through the 1970s 24
Developments During the 1980s and 1990s 25
Contemporary Developments 26
Reconceptualizing Consultation for Today’s Schools 27
Historical Summary 27
Our Definition of School Consultation 27
Assumptions of Our Approach to School Consultation 28
Topics Not Addressed in Our Approach to School Consultation 29
The Rest of the Book 30
Chapter 2 31
Problem Solving and Response to Intervention 31
Establishing a Context for RTI and the Modern Practice of School Consultation 32
Prevention as a Philosophical Influence 32
NCLB and IDEIA 2004 as Legislative Influences 33
NCLB (2001) 33
IDEIA (2004) 34
Empirical Influences 34
Problem Solving 35
What is Problem Solving? 35
Problem-Solving Teams 36
RTI 38
What is RTI? 38
RTI Systems of Implementation 38
Tier-Based Service Delivery Within RTI 39
Tier 1 39
Tier 2 40
Tier 3 41
Additional Considerations 41
Assessment and Intervention Methods Within RTI 42
Conclusion 43
Chapter 3 45
Promoting Change in Schools 45
Changing Beliefs, Attitudes, and Behaviors Within Consultation 45
The Need for Consultee Change 45
Helping the Consultee to Change 47
Collaboration: What Is It? 47
Should Consultants Influence Consultees and the Process of Consultation? 48
Early Process–Outcome Studies 48
Contemporary Process–Outcome Studies 51
Relevance of These Five Studies for School Consultants 52
A Clarification of Our Position 53
Are There Ethical Questions and Issues of Professional Dissonance Regarding the Use of Influence in Consultation? 53
If It Is Not a Collaborative Relationship, Then What Is It? 54
The Egalitarian Virus 55
General Strategies for Effecting Changes in Human Systems 55
Empirical–Rational Approach 56
Normative–Reeducative Approach 56
Power–Coercive Approach 56
Relevance of Chin and Benne’s Strategies for School Consultants 57
The Bases of Social Power and Their Application to School Consultation2 57
An Introduction to Social Power Bases and Social Influence 57
Coercive Power and Reward Power: Impersonal Forms 59
Coercive and Reward Power: Personal Forms 61
Legitimate Power: Position, Reciprocity, Equity, and Responsibility-Dependence 62
Expert Power and Referent Power: Positive Forms 63
Early Empirical Studies of Positive Expert and Positive Referent Power in School Consultation 63
The Expert–Referent Power Dilemma 64
Expert and Referent Power: Negative Forms 64
Informational Power: Direct and Indirect Forms 65
Empirical Studies of Raven’s (1992, 1993) Social Power Bases Applied to School Consultation 66
Groupings of Social Power Bases: The Soft Versus Harsh Distinction 67
Effectiveness Versus Likelihood of Use of Power Bases 67
Relevance of Social Power Base Research Studies for School Consultants 68
Other Means of Influence 68
Invoking or Reducing the Power of Third Parties 68
Preparatory Devices: Setting the Stage for Social Influence 69
The Mode of Influence 71
A Power/Interaction Model of Interpersonal Influence and Its Application to School Consultation 71
The Motivation to Influence 71
Assessment of Available Power Bases3 73
Assessment of the Available Bases in Relation to Target, Power, Preferences, and Inhibitions 73
Preparing for the Influence Attempt 73
Choice of Power Bases and Mode in Influence Attempts 74
Assessing the Effects of Influence 74
Conclusion 74
Notes 75
Chapter 4 76
The School as a Setting for Consultation 76
Organizational Traditions in the Public School System 77
Classical Organizational Theory 77
The Human Relations Movement 79
Recitation 82
Teacher-Directed Small Groups 82
Seatwork 83
Organizational Behavior Theory 83
The Service Structure of Public Schools 84
Available Services 84
Regular Education at Sloane 85
Special Education at Sloane 86
Support Services 87
The Refer-Test-Place Sequence 87
The Role of Consultation 89
School Consultation from an Administrative Perspective 89
Factors Influencing the Use of Consultation Services 89
The Three Paradoxes of School Consultation 91
Part II Consultation Processes and Outcomes 94
Chapter 5 95
Bases of an Integrated Model of School Consultation 95
Community Mental Health and Mental Health Consultation Bases 95
Population-Oriented Preventive Model 96
Crisis Model 97
Support Systems Model 98
Caplan’s Model of Mental Health Consultation 98
Fundamental Assumptions 99
The Four Types of Mental Health Consultation 100
The Consultant–Consultee Relationship 101
Sources of Consultee Difficulty 101
How the Mental Health Consultant Offers Support to Consultees 102
Behavioral Psychology and Behavioral Consultation Bases 103
Problem-Solving Model 103
Application of Behavior Modification in Natural Settings 104
Bergan’s Model of Behavioral Consultation 104
Fundamental Assumptions 105
Problem Identification 105
Problem Analysis 106
Plan Implementation 106
Problem Evaluation 106
Updates to the Original Interview Series 107
Verbal Behavior of the Behavioral Consultant 107
Behavioral Consultation Research Using the CAR 108
Interpersonal Influence and Social Power Bases 108
Summary of the Bases of an Integrated Model of School Consultation 109
Achieving Entry in School Consultation: Entering the Service Delivery Network 109
Assessing the School as an Organization: Some General Considerations 110
Getting to “Know the Territory” 110
Assessing a School’s Readiness for Change 111
Negotiating the Contract 112
Achieving School-Level (Physical) Entry 113
Building Relationships with the Host School 113
Addressing Confidentiality Issues 113
Obtaining the Sanction of the Principal and Other Administrators 114
Achieving Classroom-Level (Psychological) Entry 114
Chapter 6 116
Model Description and Application 116
A Critical Appraisal of Consultation Models 116
Mental Health Consultation 116
Behavioral Consultation 118
The Consultative Relationship 121
An Integrated Model of School Consultation 121
Precursors to School Consultation 124
The Problem-Solving Task 126
The Problem Identification Interview 126
The Problem Analysis Interview 126
The Problem Evaluation Interview 127
Interviewing Tactics 128
The Social Influence Task 128
The Support and Development Task 131
Implementation Protocols and Other Mediational Cues 132
Social Influence Strategies 133
Setting Goals for Teacher Behavior 133
Performance Feedback and Reinforcement 134
Outcomes of School Consultation 135
Chapter 7 137
Assessment in School Consultation 137
Functional Behavior Assessment 139
Indirect Assessment Phase 141
Direct Assessment Phase 142
Systematic Formative Evaluation 144
Brief Experimental Analysis 146
Chapter 8 150
Selecting Effective School-Based Interventions 150
Effectiveness of Intervention Alternatives 151
Results from Meta-Analytic Reviews 151
The Role of ABA in School-Based Intervention 152
Conceptual Models of Children’s Learning and Behavior Problems 153
Academic Intervention Models 153
Behavioral Intervention Models 156
Limitations of ABA Approaches to School-Based Intervention 160
Implementation Issues 160
Conceptual Relevance 161
Treatment Strength 162
Treatment Acceptability 162
Treatment Integrity 163
Part III Key Participants in Consultation 165
Chapter 9 166
Teachers as Consultees 166
Perspectives on Teachers and Teaching 166
The Complexity of Classroom Teaching 166
The Rewards of Teaching 168
Major Challenges Facing Teachers Today 169
The Decline and Dearth of Extrinsic Rewards 169
Students as Less Motivated and More Difficult to Teach 169
Parents as Unsupportive 170
Increased Vulnerability 170
Teacher Recruitment, Attrition, and Retention 171
Implications for the School Consultant 171
Perspectives on Teachers and School Consultation 172
Three Views on Why Teachers Seek Consultation 172
Teacher Expectations for Consultation 174
What Teachers Do Before Seeking Consultation 176
Factors that Distinguish Teachers Who Participate in Consultation from Those Who Do Not 177
Increasing the Effectiveness of Consultation with Teachers 178
Adapting Consultation to the Teacher’s Schedule: The 15-Min Consultation 178
Consulting as Part of a Prereferral Intervention/Problem-Solving Team 179
Increasing Knowledge/Skill Transfer and Maintenance 181
Providing Consultative Support to Teachers 183
Chapter 10 184
Students as Clients 184
Legislation Governing Service Delivery in the Schools 185
Educational Approaches to Classification 187
Rationale for Classifying Special Needs Students 188
Overview of Childhood Disabilities 189
Students Classified as Learning Disabled 192
Students Classified as Emotionally Disturbed 194
A Contextual Model of Student Achievement 196
Variables Limiting Individualized Instruction 196
Variables Related to Student Achievement 197
Chapter 11 200
Consultation Case Study 200
Problem Identification Interview: February 18 201
An Analysis of the First Interview 209
Problem Analysis Interview: March 4 211
An Analysis of the Second Interview 219
Problem Evaluation Interview: April 9 221
Child Measures 221
Teacher/Consultation Case Measures 222
Conclusion 222
Chapter 12 224
Epilog: The Effective Practice of School Consultation 224
References 227
Author Index 250
Subject Index 258