1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 The History of Shotokan Karate

"Karate-Do is achieved a step at a time, just like life. Just train every day and do your best and the truth will come to you."

(Masatoshi Nakayama)

The origins of Karate lie in Okinawa. Several hundred kilometres away from the Japanese mainland is the island whose inhabitants developed fighting techniques centuries ago that they used to defend themselves from invaders and armed aggressors. Through healthy trade connections and cultural exchanges with other neighbouring Asian countries, a heterogeneous martial art emerged out of the already existing local weapon and fighting techniques. The economic centres of Shuri, Naha and Tomari were the focus of this development.

The development of martial arts on Okinawa received a large impetus as far back as 1429 after the ban on weapons was decreed by King Sho Shin. Before even the Chinese influence of Chuan-Fa had gained a foothold on the island, the martial art of Te (Te = hand) was being taught by several masters. This occurred, however, in small schools and closed circles. It cannot be assumed that this martial art was standardised or, from today's standpoint, that it was a fully developed art.

In 1372, in the vicinity of Naha, several Chinese families settled and brought Buddhism with them. It is assumed that they had an influence on Te throughout the area of Naha. It is held that the local popular Naha-Te (later called Shorei-Ryu – 'Ryu' means 'school') was inspired from the traditions of Chuan-Fa. It consists of dynamic movements and puts value on breathing and the technique for producing rapid and explosive power. The interest in Chinese culture amongst the Okinawans was large and, as a result, the philosophy and the fighting techniques of Chinese boxing (Kempo) spread into several regions of Okinawa. Other centres for Te were Tomari and Shuri (the styles developed here were later also called Shorin-Ryu). A Chinese influence could also be found in Shuri-Te, with its emphasis on breathing control and round defensive movements. Tomari-Te contains, on the other hand, both these elements.

The inhabitants of Okinawa lived mainly as farmers, fishermen or traders. Very often the specific characteristics of the old style can be related to the different traditions of their professions. The American historian Randall HASSELL sees various social traditions as the roots of the different martial-art systems: The farming community preferred a style with a low stance posture so that they could defend themselves with both arms and the legs from low positions. HASSELL traces another powerful style with numerous arm movements to the fishermen.

The farmers and the fishermen were also inventive in using their work implements as weapons. Kobudo, the use of a Bo, the Tonfa, Nunchaka Kama and other tools used as weapons comes from this epoch. Today's Kata still contain, in part, (defensive) movements against such weapons.

The Japanese occupied Okinawa in 1609 and subjugated its inhabitants. This led to a ban on Te under the Satsuma dynasty at the time of Iesha Shimazu. As a result, could only be practised in secrecy. Nevertheless, there were several masters who were deeply respected and taught their art further in secret. The fighting techniques were intertwined as a sort of code into the Kata. Training was also done using the Makiwara, where techniques could be executed with lots of energy and power. The need to be able to defeat an armed aggressor using a decisive technique – and even to kill him – was expressed in the whole system of training. This concentrated and focussed on vital points of the body and played an important role.

The masters of this art were well-respected in the community, but they did not consider themselves almighty. It is therefore futile to philosophically glorify the beginnings back in the dark ages of this martial art or to try to justify the origins historically. Missing written evidence makes any statement in this way merely speculative. It is, however, a fact that the fighting system created by the fishermen and farmers of Okinawa served one purpose above all: to be able to kill an enemy who was superior both in weaponry and equipment in order to survive.

The reforms of the Meiji government, which superseded the Satsuma reign in 1868, permitted the development of martial arts and their popularity throughout the whole country.

In those days, the basic martial art that we know as Karate was called "Okinawa-Te" or "Tang-Te". The latter of these two descriptions ("Tang" means Chinese) expressed the high respect held for anything coming from China. Te, as it was then, is not yet considered by historians to be a complete or even standardised martial art. Completely differing styles had been developed in the various areas. Some consisted of very few techniques that had been practised for years and years. Some masters of the art even possessed a very limited repertoire. Some sources report that they practised only one-to-three techniques for the whole of their lives, but these were carried out to perfection.

Historian Robin L REILLY, who has conducted comprehensive research into the history of Karate, tells us that, following its liberalisation in the 19th Century, large rivalries developed amongst the Te schools (Shuri, Naha and Tomari). Very often this turned into open conflicts between the adherents, which had a negative effect on the high reputation of the Te martial art at that time.

This all changed when Te became a sport in the school curriculum. The young Master Gichin FUNAKOSHI made a great impression on some civil servants when he gave a demonstration of his skills and showed off his excellent physical condition. Consequently, Te was introduced into the schools in Okinawa in 1902. Thus, the cornerstone was laid for a change in the martial art, which had started out as a mere method of survival and was fast becoming a type of popular sport. The reason, at that time, for the inclusion of Karate in the school curriculum is interesting: Karate was thougt of as being conducive to training the concentration and physical condition of pupils. The self-defence aspect was more in the background.

Gichin FUNAKOSHI, born in 1868, very quickly achieved great popularity and moved to Japan, where he stayed for the rest of his life developing modern Karate with great success. He was a student of the Masters AZATO and ITOSU and, using his great knowledge, he developed not only modern Karate but also the Shotokan style. He also 'Japanised' the original term "Tang", borrowed from the Chinese ("Tang-Te" means "Chinese hand"), and introduced the Japanese character and term, turning it into "Kara" ("Kara" means "empty"). This also happened as a reaction to the increasing self-awareness of the Japanese and their dissociation from Chinese influences. The term "Kara", however, equally includes the philosophical principles – the way to perfection of character and the unification of body and soul – that are integrated into this martial art.

In 1917, after FUNAKOSHI had demonstrated his style of martial art in Japan for the first time at the behest of the government, the impetus this gave to Karate knew no bounds. He pursued his aim – spreading the art of Karate – with inexhaustible zeal and this made him even more successful. This was not only because he was a highly educated master whose activities as a Karate instructor drew the attention of powerful individuals in government circles and the royal family. FUNAKOSHI also worked as a successful calligraphist and author, publishing his works under the nom de plume of "Shoto". He was well-known in Japan and more and more followers rallied round him, above all many from the intellectual milieu in universities and from military circles. His great popularity in the universities helped his Karate teaching later to reach worldwide popularity, as many of his pupils at the universities were destined to go abroad at a later point.

In Okinawa itself, several masters were against the change and the renaming of their martial art Te into Karate. They accused FUNAKOSHI of being a traitor to the traditions of Okinawa. This did no damage, however, to his success. Later on, many of these critics adopted the name of "Karate" for their own martial art.

In addition to the long tradition of the predominant Kata form of Karate training, in the 1930s, FUNAKOSHI developed training with a partner: Gohon Kumite, Kihon Ippon Kumite, Jiyu Ippon Kumite and free-fighting. He borrowed sequences from the Kata that were practised with a partner using various techniques. In this way a programme was created that came very close to self-defence. Kata training was now devoted more to the aim of achieving flexibility, speed and muscle strengthening. Aesthetic dimensions were also gradually being taken into account. The daily, routine practice of Karate in three elements that we know today as Kihon, Kumite and Kata came about at that time.

In 1939, FUNAKOSHI was already over 70 years old. In addition to his style – Shotokan Karate – further styles of Karate, such as Goju-Ryu, Shito-Ryu and Wado-Ryu, had been developed. These styles were also introduced by masters from Okinawa.

In honour of their master, FUNAKOSHI, several influential students built a dojo, which they named "Shotokan". This means "the hall of Shoto" and was from then on the term used for his style. The symbol for Shotokan Karate, the tiger in a circle, was designed by the famous artist Hoan KOSUGI, a friend of FUNAKOSHI, to illustrate his books about Karate. This is also the symbol widely used and adopted worldwide by Shotokan Karate clubs and associations even...