Risk Factors in Depression (eBook)

FRONT COVER 1
RISK FACTORS IN DEPRESSION 4
COPYRIGHT PAGE 5
CONTENTS 6
PREFACE 18
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 24
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: ASSESSING RISK AND RESILIENCE FACTORS IN MODELS OF DEPRESSION 28
The Nature of Major Depression 29
The Course of Depression 32
The Nature of Risk 34
Research Methods for Studying Risk 35
Conceptual Models for Studying Risk 37
Preview of this Volume 39
PART I: BIOLOGICAL FACTORS 44
CHAPTER 2 GENETIC RISK AND FAMILIAL TRANSMISSION OF DEPRESSION 46
Classification/Diagnosis of Depression 47
Measuring Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors 48
Family, Adoption and Twin Studies 48
Molecular Genetic Studies 48
Linkage Studies 48
The Familiality/Heritability of MDD 49
Childhood Depression 51
Heritability, Gender and Depression 51
Heritability and Clinical Characteristics of Major Depression 51
Gene-Environment Interactions 52
Molecular Genetic Studies and MDD 52
Linkage Studies and MDD 52
Linkage Studies, MDD and Comorbidity 53
Candidate Gene Studies and MDD 54
Refining the Phenotype 55
The Reactive/Endogenous Division of MDD 55
Melancholic and Atypical Depression 55
Childbirth and MDD 56
Psychosis and MDD 56
Suicide and MDD 56
Symptom Dimensions and MDD 57
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) 57
Treatment Response 57
Future Directions 57
CHAPTER 3 ALTERATIONS IN NEURAL STRUCTURES AS RISK FACTORS FOR DEPRESSION 64
Neural Structures as Risk Factors 64
Neuroimaging Approaches 65
Neuro-anatomical Correlates of Depression 67
Brain Markers of Vulnerability to Depression 74
Conclusions and Future Perspectives 80
CHAPTER 4 NEUROCHEMICAL AND TRANSMITTER MODELS OF DEPRESSION 90
Monoamine Variations Associated with Stressors 92
Sensitization 93
Genetic Engineering and Behavioral Impairments 94
Studies in Humans: Imaging, Binding and Postmortem Analyses 94
Genetic Links between Serotonin Functioning and Depression 97
Pharmacological Studies 98
Corticotropin Releasing Hormone 98
CRH Receptors 99
CRH in Depression/Suicide 100
HPA Polymorphisms Related to MDD 101
CRH–AVP Interactions 101
Pharmacological Studies 102
Morphological Correlates of Major Depressive Illness 102
Neurogenesis and Depression 103
Growth Factors in Relation to Stressors and Depression 103
Inflammatory Processes Associated with MDD 104
Proactive Effects of Cytokines 106
Cytokines in Relation to Depression in Humans 107
Concluding Comments 108
CHAPTER 5 SLEEP DYSREGULATION AND RELATED REGULATORY MODELS 118
Overview of Normal Sleep 119
Control Mechanisms of Normal Sleep 119
Normal Sleep Architecture and Sleep Neurobiology 121
Sleep and Circadian Disturbances in Depression 124
Sleep-focused Models of Depression 127
Circadian and Sleep Disturbances as Risk Factors for Depression 129
Specificity of Sleep Disturbances as Risk Factors for Depression 130
Treatment Implications 131
Directions for Future Theory and Research Development 136
PART II: COGNITIVE FACTORS 146
CHAPTER 6 COGNITIVE SCHEMAS, BELIEFS AND ASSUMPTIONS 148
Beck's Cognitive Model 149
The Measurement of Beliefs and Schemas 152
Requirement for a Vulnerability Factor 153
Content Sensitivity 154
Content-Specificity 154
Cognitive Stability 157
Studies of "Vulnerable" Populations 159
Longitudinal Studies of Cognitive Vulnerability 159
Mechanisms Related to the Development of Core Beliefs/Schemas 160
Conclusions and Future Directions 162
CHAPTER 7 INFORMATION PROCESSING: ATTENTION AND MEMORY 172
Memory and Risk 174
Recall Bias 174
Memory Specificity 176
Attention and Risk 178
Attentional Affective Bias 178
Attentional Capacity and Allocation 180
Inhibition of Attention 184
Eye Movement Indicators of Attention 186
Thought Suppression 188
Summary of Attention and Risk 189
Treatment and Future Directions 190
CHAPTER 8 OPTIMISM AND PESSIMISM 198
Introduction 198
Expecting the Best: "Dispositional Optimism" more accurately called "Expectational Optimism" 199
Explaining Events: Explanatory Style 200
Related Constructs: Self-Efficacy and Hope 202
Cognitive Models of Depression 203
From Helplessness to Hopelessness: The Role of Explanatory Style in Depression 203
Evidence for Pessimism as a Risk Factor for Depression 204
Interventions that Increase Optimism and Lower Depression 209
Benefits of Optimism 211
Building the Positive: Positive Psychology and Optimism 212
The Future of Optimism/Pessimism 217
CHAPTER 9 DISPOSITIONAL PESSIMISM ACROSS THE LIFESPAN 222
Dispositional Optimism 223
Assessing Dispositional Optimism 223
Examining the Prospective Association Between Dispositional Optimism and Depression 224
Adolescents and University Students 224
Older Adults 225
Pregnancy and Childbirth 225
Abortion 226
Cancer 226
Patient–Caregiver Dyads 226
Surgical Outcomes 227
HIV and AIDS 227
Mediating Pathways Through Which Dispositional Optimism Predicts Depression 228
Explanatory Style 229
Reformulated Learned Helplessness Theory 229
Hopelessness Theory 229
Assessing Explanatory Style 230
Prospective Studies of the Association Between Explanatory Style and Depression 231
University Students 231
Depressed Adult Patients 233
Children and Adolescents 234
Mediating Pathways Through Which Explanatory Style Predicts Depression 235
Relationship Between Dispositional Optimism and Explanatory Style 236
Theoretical Perspectives 237
Empirical Observations 238
Directions for Future Research 238
CHAPTER 10 RUMINATIVE RESPONSE STYLE 248
Evidence of Risk for Depression 249
Proposed Mechanisms of Risk 253
Specificity of Risk 256
Treatment Implications 257
Directions for Future Research 259
CHAPTER 11 NEGATIVE COGNITIVE STYLE 264
Description of Negative Cognitive Style 264
Mechanisms by Which Negative Cognitive Style Increases Risk for Depression 266
Empirical Support for Negative Cognitive Style as a Risk Factor for Depression 268
Prospective Research on Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression 268
CVD Project Results 271
Developmental Antecedents of Negative Cognitive Styles 276
Do Modeling and Parental Inferential Feedback Contribute to the Development of Negative Cognitive Styles? 277
Do General Parenting Styles Contribute to the Development of Negative Cognitive Styles? 277
Does Childhood Maltreatment Contribute to the Development of Negative Cognitive Styles? 278
Negative Cognitive Styles: Implications for Resilience to Depression, Treatment, and Prevention 279
Adaptive Inferential Feedback as a Buffer Against Depression Among Cognitively Vulnerable Individuals 279
Treatment and Prevention 281
Directions for Future Research 282
CHAPTER 12 SOCIAL PROBLEM SOLVING AS A RISK FACTOR FOR DEPRESSION 290
What Is Social Problem Solving? 290
How Does Social Problem Solving Serve as a Risk Factor for Depression? 292
Problem-Solving Component Processes and Depression 296
Depression, Rumination, and Social Problem Solving 297
What is the Empirical Support for Problem Solving to be a Depressogenic Risk Factor? 298
Social Problem Solving and Depression 298
SPS as a Moderator of the Stress–Depression Association 301
Problem-Solving Therapy for Depression: Treatment Implications 301
Are SPS Deficits Specific to Depression? 306
Future Directions 306
PART III: SOCIAL FACTORS 314
CHAPTER 13 THE ROOTS OF DEPRESSION IN EARLY ATTACHMENT EXPERIENCES 316
Attachment and Later Depression: Conceptual Arguments and Existing Evidence 318
Attachment: Origins, Correlates, and Developmental Implications 321
Individual Differences in Attachment 322
Trauma, Fear, and Disorganized Attachment 323
The Development of Representations 324
Attachment and Later Psychopathology 326
How the cognitive and Interpersonal Consequences of Early Attachment Experiences May Affect Resilience and Vulnerability to Depression 327
Specific Cognitive and Interpersonal Vulnerabilities Associated with Particular Patterns of Attachment 328
Areas for Further Research at the Intersection of Attachment and Risk for Depression 332
How Are Cognitive Schemas Activated? 333
Cognitive Schemas and Emotions 334
Adult Attachment Representations and Interpersonal Risks for Depression 335
Differences in Underlying Vulnerability to Depression: Implications for Therapy 336
Concluding Comments 337
CHAPTER 14 LIFE EVENTS AND HASSLES 344
Assessing and Defining Stressful Life Events 345
Life Event Assessment: Daily Hassles 346
Life Event Assessment: Interview-Based Approaches 347
Life Events and Depression 348
Life Events and Syndrome Specificity 350
Life Events and Specificity to Depression vs. Anxiety 350
Life Stress and the Melancholic vs. Non-Melancholic Distinction in Depression 351
Stress Sensitization and Depression 355
Genetic Vulnerability to Stress Sensitization 356
Childhood Adversity Vulnerability to Stress Sensitization 358
Cognitive and Personality Vulnerability to Stress Sensitivity 359
Summary 361
Conclusions 362
CHAPTER 15 PARENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY AND PARENTING STYLE ATTACHMENT AS RISK FACTORS OF DEPRESSION 370
Introduction 370
Parental Psychopathology and Depression in Offspring 371
Top-Down Studies 371
Bottom-Up Studies 372
Clinical Features of Parental Psychopathology and Children's Depression 375
Parental Depression and Children's Psychosocial Impairment and Course of Depression 377
Parenting Styles and Depression 378
Moderators of Parental Depression and Children's Outcome 380
Studies of Depressed Parents 380
Observation Studies 381
Single or Multi-factorial Model of Risk for Depression 382
Conclusions and Future Directions 383
Specificity 383
Genetic and Environmental Effects 383
Protective or Resiliency Factors 384
A Focus on Prevention 384
CHAPTER 16 MARRIAGE AND RELATIONSHIP ISSUES 390
Relationship Functioning and Depression 391
Global Evaluation of Marital Discord 391
Marital Processes 396
Specificity of the Association between Marital Functioning and Depression 399
Treatment Implications 400
Couples Therapy 400
Directions for Future Theory and Research Development 403
Conclusion 406
CHAPTER 17 LOW SOCIAL SUPPORT AND MAJOR DEPRESSION: RESEARCH, THEORY AND METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES 412
Social Support Theory, Measurement, and Methods 413
Social Support Theory 413
Social Support Measurement 413
Methods for Testing Stress and Coping Social Support Theory 415
Empirical Research on Social Support and Depression 416
Cross-sectional Studies of Social Support and Depression 416
Prospective Studies of Social Support and Depression 417
Studies of Depression Remission Following Treatment 421
Implications for Social Support Theory and Research 423
Other Theoretical Approaches 424
Are Prospective Studies Appropriate For Testing Alternative Theories? 426
Alternative Research Designs 427
Summary and Conclusions 430
CHAPTER 18 STRESS GENERATION AND DEPRESSION 436
Defining the Risk Factor 436
General Models of Person–Environment Transactions 437
Hypothesized Mechanism of Action 438
Effects of Prior and Current Depression on Stress Generation 438
Effects of Clinical Factors on Stress Generation 441
Effects of Other Vulnerability Factors on Stress Generation 441
Onset vs. Recurrence of depression 445
Role of Self-generated (Dependent) Stress on Depression 445
Specificity of Stress Generation in Relation to Depression 447
Implications for Resilience and Treatment 449
Conclusions and Directions for Future Research 450
CHAPTER 19 REASSURANCE SEEKING AND NEGATIVE FEEDBACK SEEKING 456
Risk Factor Models 457
Excessive Reassurance Seeking 458
ERS and Rejection 459
ERS and Depression 460
ERS: Future Directions 463
Negative Feedback Seeking 464
NFS and Rejection 465
NFS and Depression 467
NFS: Future Directions 468
Reassurance and NFS: Integrations and Future Directions 468
An Integrative Model of Risk for Rejection 468
Reassurance and NFS as Maintenance Factors 469
Interpersonal Risk Factors for Depression? 470
CHAPTER 20 AVOIDANCE 474
Introduction 474
The Construct of Avoidance 474
Literature Review 475
Theories That Posit a Role for Avoidance in the Context of Depression 475
Empirical Investigations of the Relationship Between Avoidance and Depression 481
Conceptual and Methodological Issues in the Study of Avoidance and Depression 485
Commonalities and Distinctions Between Avoidance and Other Concepts 489
Directions for Future Research and Clinical Implications 491
SUBJECT INDEX 498
A 498
B 499
C 499
D 501
E 501
F 502
G 502
H 503
I 503
L 504
M 504
N 505
O 506
P 506
R 507
S 508
T 510
U 510
V 510
W 510