Information Visualization (eBook)

Cover 1
Contents 6
Figure Credits 16
Foreword 18
Preface 20
Chapter 1 Foundation for a Science of Data Visualisation 28
Visualization Stages 31
Experimental Semiotics Based on Perception 32
Semiotics of Graphics 33
Pictures as Sensory Languages 35
Sensory versus Arbitrary Symbols 37
Properties of Sensory and Arbitrary Representation 40
Testing Claims about Sensory Representations 42
Arbitrary Conventional Representations 42
The Study of Arbitrary Conventional Symbols 44
A Model of Perceptual Processing 47
Stage 1: Parallel Processing to Extract Low-Level Properties of the Visual Scene 47
Stage 2: Pattern Perception 48
Stage 3: Sequential Goal-Directed Processing 49
Types of Data 50
Entities 50
Relationships 50
Attributes of Entities or Relationships 51
Operations Considered as Data 52
Metadata 53
Conclusion 54
Chapter 2 The Environment, Optics, Resolution and the Display 56
The Environment 57
Visible Light 57
Ecological Optics 57
Optical Flow 59
Textured Surfaces and Texture Gradients 60
The Paint Model of Surfaces 62
The Eye 65
The Visual Angle Defined 67
The Lens 68
Optics and Augmented-Reality Systems 69
Optics in Virtual-Reality Displays 72
Chromatic Aberration 72
Receptors 73
Simple Acuities 74
Acuity Distribution and the Visual Field 77
Brain Pixels and the Optimal Screen 80
Spatial Contrast Sensitivity Function 84
Visual Stress 89
The Optimal Display 89
Aliasing 90
Number of Dots 92
Superacuities and Displays 92
Temporal Requirements of the Perfect Display 93
Conclusion 94
Chapter 3 Lightness, Brightness, Contrast and Constancy 96
Neurons, Receptive Fields, and Brightness Illusions 97
Simultaneous Brightness Contrast 99
Mach Bands 101
The Chevreul Illusion 101
Simultaneous Contrast and Errors in Reading Maps 102
Contrast Effects and Artifacts in Computer Graphics 102
Edge Enhancement 104
Luminance, Brightness, Lightness, and Gamma 107
Luminance 108
Brightness 110
Adaptation, Contrast, and Lightness Constancy 111
Contrast and Constancy 113
Perception of Surface Lightness 114
Lightness Differences and the Gray Scale 115
Monitor Illumination and Monitor Surrounds 117
Conclusion 120
Chapter 4 Color 124
Trichromacy Theory 125
Color Blindness 126
Color Measurement 127
Change of Primaries 129
CIE System of Color Standards 130
Chromaticity Coordinates 131
Color Differences and Uniform Color Spaces 135
Opponent Process Theory 137
Naming 137
Cross-Cultural Naming 139
Unique Hues 139
Neurophysiology 140
Categorical Colors 140
Properties of Color Channels 140
Color Appearance 143
Color Contrast 144
Saturation 144
Brown 145
Applications of Color in Visualization 146
Application 1: Color Specification Interfaces and Color Spaces 146
Application 2: Color for Labeling 150
Application 3: Color Sequences for Data Maps 154
Application 4: Color Reproduction 165
Application 5: Color for Exploring Multidimensional Discrete Data 167
Conclusion 170
Chapter 5 Visual Attention and Information that Pops Out 172
Searching the Visual Field 173
Useful Field of View 173
Tunnel Vision and Stress 174
The Role of Motion in Attracting Attention 174
Reading from the Iconic Buffer 174
Preattentive Processing 176
Rapid Area Judgments 181
Coding with Combinations of Features 181
Conjunctions with Spatial Dimensions 182
Highlighting 183
Designing a Symbol Set 184
Neural Processing, Graphemes, and Tuned Receptors 186
The Grapheme 187
The Gabor Model and Texture in Visualization 188
Texture Segmentation 190
Tradeoffs in Information Density: An Uncertainty Principle 190
Texture Coding Information 191
Primary Perceptual Dimensions of Texture 191
Generation of Distinct Textures 193
Spatial-Frequency Channels, Orthogonality, and Maps 194
Texture Resolution 196
Texture Contrast Effects 197
Other Dimensions of Visual Texture 197
Texture Field Displays 199
Glyphs and Multivariate Discrete Data 203
Restricted Classification Tasks 204
Speeded Classification Tasks 205
Integral–Separable Dimension Pairs 207
Monotonicity of Visual Attributes 208
Multidimensional Discrete Data 209
Stars, Whiskers, and Other Glyphs 211
Conclusion 212
Chapter 6 Static and Moving Patterns 214
Gestalt Laws 216
Proximity 216
Similarity 217
Connectedness 218
Continuity 218
Symmetry 219
Closure 221
Relative Size 223
Figure and Ground 223
More on Contours 225
Perceiving Direction: Representing Vector Fields 227
Comparing 2D Flow Visualization Techniques 228
Perception of Transparency: Overlapping Data 232
Pattern Learning 233
The Perceptual Syntax of Diagrams 237
The Grammar of Node–Link Diagrams 237
The Grammar of Maps 242
Patterns in Motion 244
Form and Contour in Motion 246
Moving Frames 247
Expressive Motion 248
Perception of Causality 249
Perception of Animate Motion 250
Enriching Diagrams with Simple Animation 251
Conclusion 252
Chapter 7 Visual Objects and Data Objects 254
Image-Based Object Recognition 255
Applications of Images in User Interfaces 257
Structure-Based Object Recognition 260
Geon Theory 260
Silhouettes 260
Faces 264
The Object Display and Object-Based Diagrams 266
The Geon Diagram 268
Perceiving the Surface Shapes of Objects 270
Spatial Cues for Representing Scalar Fields 271
Integration of Cues for Surface Shape 274
Interaction of Shading and Contour 275
Guidelines for Displaying Surfaces 279
Bivariate Maps: Lighting and Surface Color 281
Cushion Maps 282
Integration 282
Conclusion 284
Chapter 8 Space Perception and the Display of Data in Space 286
Depth Cue Theory 286
Perspective Cues 287
Pictures Seen from the Wrong Viewpoint 290
Occlusion 292
Depth of Focus 293
Cast Shadows 293
Shape-from-Shading 295
Eye Accommodation 296
Structure-from-Motion 296
Eye Convergence 297
Stereoscopic Depth 298
Problems with Stereoscopic Displays 300
Making Effective Stereoscopic Displays 301
Artificial Spatial Cues 306
Depth Cues in Combination 307
Task-Based Space Perception 310
Tracing Data Paths in 3D Graphs 311
Judging the Morphology of Surfaces and Surface Target Detection 314
Patterns of Points in 3D Space 315
Judging Relative Positions of Objects in Space 316
Judging the Relative Movement of Self within the Environment 317
Reaching for Objects 318
Judging the “Up” Direction 319
The Aesthetic Impression of 3D Space (Presence) 320
Conclusion 321
Chapter 9 Images, Worlds and Gestures 324
Coding Words and Images 324
The Nature of Language 326
Visual and Spoken Language 328
Images vs. Words 330
Links between Images and Words 333
Static Links 334
Gestures as Linking Devices 336
Deixis 336
Symbolic Gestures 337
Expressive Gestures 338
Visual Momentum in Animated Sequences 338
Animated Visual Languages 339
Conclusion 342
Chapter 10 Interacting with Visualizations 344
Data Selection and Manipulation Loop 345
Choice Reaction Time 345
2D Positioning and Selection 346
Hover Queries 347
Path Tracing 348
Two-Handed Interaction 348
Learning 349
Control Compatibility 349
Vigilance 351
Exploration and Navigation Loop 352
Locomotion and Viewpoint Control 352
Frames of Reference 360
Map Orientation 364
Focus, Context, and Scale 365
Rapid Interaction with Data 372
Conclusion 376
Chapter 11 Thinking with Visualizations 378
Memory Systems 379
Visual Working Memory 379
Visual Working Memory Capacity 382
Rensink’s Model 389
Eye Movements 390
Accommodation 391
Eye Movements, Search, and Monitoring 391
Long-Term Memory 393
Problem Solving with Visualizations 397
Visual Problem Solving Processes 398
The Problem Solving Strategy 399
Visual Query Construction 399
The Pattern-Finding Loop 400
The Eye Movement Control Loop 401
The Intrasaccadic Scanning Loop 401
Implications for Interactive Visualization Design 401
Interfaces to Knowledge Structures 406
Creative Problem Solving 410
Conclusion 412
Appendix A Changing Primaries 414
Appendix B CIE Color Measurement System 416
Appendix C The Perceptual Evaluation of Visualization Techniques and Systems 420
Research Goals 420
Psychophysics 421
Detection Methods 422
Method of Adjustment 424
Cognitive Psychology 424
Structural Analysis 425
Testbench Application for Discovery 425
Structured Interviews 426
Rating Scales 426
Statistical Exploration 427
Principal Components Analysis 427
Multidimensional Scaling 427
Clustering 428
Multiple Regression 428
Cross-Cultural Studies 428
Child Studies 428
Practical Problems in Conducting User Studies 429
Experimenter Bias 429
How Many Subjects to Use? 430
Combinatorial Explosion 430
Task Identification 431
Controls 431
Getting Help 431
Bibliography 432
Subject Index 478
Author Index 506
About the Author 512