Dynamic Aquaria (eBook)

Cover 1
COPYRIGHT PAGE 5
CONTENTS 6
PREFACE 12
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND DEDICATION 16
CHAPTER 1 Introduction 18
The Origin of Life: Microcosm Earth 19
Microcosms and Mesocosms of Aquatic Ecosystems 22
Restoration of Damaged Ecological Systems 25
Summary 25
Taxonomic Notes 25
References 26
PART I: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 28
CHAPTER 2 The Envelope: Physical Parameters and Energy State 30
Temperature 34
Water Motion 40
Tides: Simulating the Effects of Sun and Moon 52
References 58
CHAPTER 3 Substrate: The Active Role of Rock, Mud, and Sand 60
The Solid Earth and Life 61
Chemical Relationships Between Rocks, Sea Water, and Organisms 65
The Solid Earth, Rock, and Model Ecosystems 67
Sediments and Model Ecosystems 68
Geological Storage 76
References 77
CHAPTER 4 Water Composition: Management of Salinity, Hardness, and Evaporation 78
Water Structure and Characteristics 79
Ocean Salinity 80
Hardness of Fresh Waters 84
Water and Model Ecosystems 88
Algal Scrubbing and Water Composition 88
Marine Microcosms and Aquaria 89
Quality of Top-up Water 90
References 90
CHAPTER 5 The Input of Solar Energy: Lighting Requirements 92
Photosynthesis and Its Origin 92
Solar Radiation and Water 96
Light Absorption by Water Plants 99
Light Intensity and Plants 99
Photorespiration 105
Light and Model Ecosystems 106
Light and Physiological Considerations 108
Summary 108
References 109
CHAPTER 6 The Input of Organic Energy: Particulates and Feeding 110
Particulates, Energy Supply, and Aquatic Ecosystems 110
Inorganic Particulates 112
Organic Particulates 112
Humic Substance 114
Particulates and Aquatic Models 114
Biofilms 115
Particulate Import in Aquatic Models 117
Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration 117
References 117
PART II: BIOCHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT 118
CHAPTER 7 Metabolism: Respiration, Photosynthesis, and Biological Loading 120
Metabolism 122
Respiration 123
Bacterial Metabolism 127
Photosynthesis 129
Biological Loading 131
References 132
CHAPTER 8 Organisms and Gas Exchange: Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, pH, and Alkalinity 134
Oxygen Exchange 135
Oxygen, Model Ecosystems, and Ecosystem Restoration 137
Carbon Dioxide Exchange 138
Carbon Dioxide and Global Aquatic Restoration 139
Managing Carbon Dioxide and pH in Microcosms and Mesocosms 141
Gas Exchange and Selected Model Ecosystems 142
References 145
CHAPTER 9 The Primary Nutrients – Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Silica: Limitation and Eutrophication 148
Nutrients in Natural Waters 148
Eutrophication and Hypereutrophication of Natural Waters 151
Nutrients and Model Ecosystems 153
Summary 156
References 157
CHAPTER 10 Biomineralization and Calcification: A Key to Biosphere and Ecosystem Function 158
The Process of Biomineralization 160
The Carbonate System and the Formation of Calcite and Aragonite 160
Halimeda: Photosynthesis-Induced Calcification 162
Calcification in Stony Corals 163
Calcification, Stony Corals, Coral Reefs, and Global Warming 165
Calcification in Mesocosms and Aquaria 167
Coral Reef Aquaria and Stony Coral Calcification 168
References 171
CHAPTER 11 Control of the Biochemical Environment: Filters, Bacteria, and the Algal Turf Scrubber 172
Sterilization Methods 173
Bacteriological Filtration 173
Reef Systems 174
Denitrification 174
Foam Fractionation (Protein Skimming) 175
Photosynthetic Methods 175
Algal Turfs 176
The Algal Turf Scrubber (ATS™) 178
Algal Scrubbers and the Modeling of Ecosystems 182
Summary 185
References 186
PART III: BIOLOGICAL STRUCTURE 188
CHAPTER 12 Community Structure: Biodiversity in Model Ecosystems 190
The Framework of Biodiversity 190
The Community 192
The Biome 192
Features of Communities 198
The Magnitude of Biodiversity 200
Community Structure and Ecological Models 203
Scaling and Reproduction 203
Model Diversity 204
Summary 206
References 206
CHAPTER 13 Trophic Structure: Ecosystems and the Dynamics of Food Chains 208
Energy Capture and Flow 209
Food Webs 210
Food Webs in Model Ecosystems 212
Establishment of Food Webs 213
Trophic Structure in Aquaria 218
The Organisms 219
References 219
CHAPTER 14 Primary Producers: Plants That Grow on the Bottom 220
Benthic Algae 220
Algae in Model Ecosystems 236
Submerged Aquatic Vegetation 239
Marine SAV and Model Ecosystems 246
Freshwater SAV and Model Ecosystems 248
Emergent Aquatic Vegetation 251
EAV and Model Ecosystems 259
Plant Communities and the Restoration of Wild Ecosystems 267
References 268
CHAPTER 15 Herbivores: Predators of Plants and Omnivores, Predators of Plants and Animals 270
Types of Herbivores 271
Plant Defenses 273
Modifications of Marine and Freshwater Herbivores 274
Herbivores and Model Ecosystems 280
References 282
CHAPTER 16 Carnivores: Predators of Animals 284
The Carnivore Predator 284
The Prey 285
The Dynamics of Predation 286
Marine and Freshwater Predators 286
Predators and Synthetic Ecosystems 292
References 296
CHAPTER 17 Plankton and Planktivores: Floating Plants and Animals and Their Predators 298
Plankton Size and Composition 299
The Bacteria 299
Phytoplankton 299
The Planktonic Food Web 303
Mechanisms of Filter Feeding 305
Plankton, Particulates, and Model Ecosystems 310
Wild Ecosystem Restoration 317
References 319
CHAPTER 18 Detritus and Detritivores: The Dynamics of Muddy Bottoms 320
The Deep Ocean 324
Bacteria 324
Fungi 324
Protozoa 326
Meiobenthos: Protozoans 326
Meiofauna: The Multicellular Invertebrates 328
Macrobenthos 330
Deposit Feeding in Saltwater Soft Bottoms 334
Deposit Feeding in Freshwater Soft Bottoms 336
Carnivores and the Detritivore Community 338
Detritus and Its Role in Model Ecosystems 338
References 344
CHAPTER 19 Symbionts and Other Feeders 346
Zooxanthellae and Their Animal Hosts 346
Biology and Ecology of Corals 349
The Positive Feedback Loop between Photosynthesis and Calcification 351
Anthozoans and Microcosms, Mesocosms, and Aquaria 352
Parasitism 353
Environment, General Health, and Disease 354
Biodiversity 354
Quarantine (Prevention of Transmission) 354
Disease Treatment in Model Ecosystems 355
References 356
PART IV: ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS IN MICROCOSMS, MESOCOSMS, AND AQUARIA 358
CHAPTER 20 Models of Coral Reef Ecosystems 360
Modeling Coral Reef Ecosystems 361
Caribbean Coral Reef Microcosm at the Museum of Natural History 362
Coral Reef Microcosm at the Smithsonian Marine Station 370
Great Barrier Reef Mesocosm 370
A 130-Gallon Reef Microcosm 373
Summary 385
References 385
CHAPTER 21 A Subarctic/Boreal Microcosm: Test of a Biogeographic Model 388
The Rocky, Embayed Coast of the Northwestern Atlantic Geological History 388
The Gulf of Maine 393
The Core Subarctic 404
Core Subarctic vs Mixed Subarctic/Boreal 410
A Maine Shore Microcosm 412
An Opportunity to Test Biogeographic Theory 420
References 421
CHAPTER 22 Estuaries: Ecosystem Modeling and Restoration 422
Where Fresh and Salt Waters Interact 422
Chesapeake Bay in Mesocosm 423
A Florida Estuary in Mesocosm 433
Nutrient Dynamics in Estuarine Models 456
Estuarine Restoration 456
References 458
CHAPTER 23 Freshwater Ecosystem Models 460
A Florida Everglades Stream and Wetland 460
A Blackwater Home Aquarium 467
Restoration of Freshwater Ecosystems 469
References 469
PART V: THE ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING 472
CHAPTER 24 Organisms and Natural Products: Commercial Ecosystem Culture 474
The Aquarium World 475
Pharmaceutical Culture 479
References 480
CHAPTER 25 Large Scale: Water Quality Management with Solar Energy Capture 482
The Quality of US Surface and Ground Waters 484
Nutrient Removal from Domestic Wastewaters 485
Nutrient Removal from Agricultural Wastewaters (Nonpoint Source) 491
Nutrient Removal from Rivers 496
Bioenergy and Solar Energy Recovery Using ATS Systems 497
Aquacultural Wastewaters 498
Industrial Wastewaters and ATS Systems 501
References 506
PART VI: SUMMARY 508
CHAPTER 26 Microcosms, Mesocosms, and Macrocosms: Building and Restoring Ecosystems, a Synthesis 510
Principles of Ecological Modeling 511
Ecosystems in Home Aquaria 515
Applied Model Ecosystems 516
References 516
INDEX 518
A 518
B 518
C 519
D 520
E 520
F 520
G 521
H 521
I 521
J 522
K 522
L 522
M 522
N 523
O 523
P 523
Q 524
R 524
S 524
T 525
U 525
V 525
W 525
Z 525
COLOR PLATES 526