Parasitology (eBook)

Cover 1
Title Page 5
Copyright Page 6
Contents 9
Preface 17
About the Companion Website 19
Chapter 1 Animal Associations and the Importance of Parasites 21
1.1 Introduction 21
1.2 Animal Associations 21
1.2.1 Symbiosis 23
1.2.2 Commensalism 25
1.2.3 Phoresis 25
1.2.4 Mutualism 26
1.2.5 Parasitism 26
1.2.6 Parasitoids 28
1.2.7 The Concept of Harm 30
1.3 Parasite Hosts 30
1.4 Zoonotic Infections 33
1.5 The Co-evolution of Parasites and Their Hosts 33
1.5.1 The Red Queen’s Race Hypothesis 34
1.5.2 Parasites in the Fossil Record 35
1.5.3 Parasites and the Evolution of Sexual Reproduction 36
1.6 Parasitism as a ‘Lifestyle’: Advantages and Limitations 37
1.7 The Economic Cost of Parasitic Diseases 38
1.7.1 DALYs: Disability-Adjusted Life Years 40
1.8 Why Parasitic Diseases Remain a Problem 42
Chapter 2 Taxonomy 47
2.1 Introduction 47
2.2 Viruses: A Special (Unresolved) Case 48
2.3 Taxonomic Hierarchy 48
2.3.1 The Binomen System 49
2.4 Kingdom Protista 50
2.5 Kingdom Animalia 51
2.5.1 Parazoa 51
2.5.2 Eumetazoa 51
Chapter 3 Parasitic Protozoa Part A: Phyla Rhizopoda, Metamonada, Apicomplexa 53
3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 Phylum Rhizopoda 54
3.2.1 Entamoeba histolytica 54
3.2.2 Entamoeba dispar 58
3.2.3 Entamoeba moshkovskii 58
3.2.4 Entamoeba gingivalis 58
3.2.5 Naegleria fowleri 59
3.2.6 Balamuthia mandrillaris 60
3.2.7 Genus Acanthamoeba 61
3.3 Phylum Metamonada 62
3.3.1 Order Diplomonadida 62
3.3.2 Order Trichomonadida 64
3.4 Phylum Apicomplexa 69
3.4.1 Genus Plasmodium 70
3.4.2 Genus Theileria 75
3.4.3 Genus Babesia 77
3.5 Subclass Coccidiasina 80
3.5.1 Genus Eimeria 80
3.5.2 Genus Isospora 81
3.5.3 Genus Cystoisospora 81
3.5.4 Genus Cyclospora 83
3.5.5 Genus Sarcocystis 83
3.5.6 Genus Toxoplasma, Toxoplasma gondii 86
3.5.7 Genus Neospora 90
3.5.8 Genus Cryptosporidium 92
Chapter 4 Parasitic Protozoa Part B: Phylum Kinetoplastida Parasitic Algae and Fungi
4.1 Introduction 94
4.2 Phylum Kinetoplastida 94
4.2.1 Genus Leishmania 97
4.2.2 Genus Trypanosoma 104
4.3 Phylum Chlorophyta 116
4.3.1 Genus Prototheca 117
4.4 Kingdom Fungi 117
4.4.1 Phylum Microspora 118
Chapter 5 Platyhelminth and Acanthocephalan Parasites 121
5.1 Introduction 121
5.2 Phylum Platyhelminthes 121
5.2.1 Trematoda 122
5.3 Class Cestoda 145
5.3.1 Order Pseudophyllidea/Diphyllobothridea 146
5.3.2 Order Cyclophyllidea 149
5.4 Phylum Acanthocephala 165
Chapter 6 Nematode Parasites 168
6.1 Introduction 168
6.2 Class Enoplea 170
6.2.1 Genus Trichuris 170
6.2.2 Genus Trichinella 172
6.3 Class Rhabdita 176
6.3.1 Genus Strongyloides 176
6.3.2 Genus Ancylostoma 179
6.3.3 Genus Necator 183
6.3.4 Genus Ascaris 184
6.3.5 Genus Enterobius: Enterobius vermicularis 188
6.3.6 Genus Toxocara: Toxocara canis 190
6.3.7 Genus Anisakis 191
6.3.8 Family Onchocercidae 192
Chapter 7 Arthropod Parasites 202
7.1 Introduction 202
7.2 Phylum Chelicerata 203
7.2.1 Family Demodicidae 205
7.2.2 Family Sarcoptidae 206
7.2.3 Family Psoroptidae 209
7.2.4 Suborder Ixodida 210
7.3 Phylum Crustacea 214
7.3.1 Subclass Copepoda 214
7.3.2 Infraclass Cirripedia 215
7.3.3 Subclass Branchiura 216
7.3.4 Subclass Pentastomida 217
7.4 Subphylum Hexapoda 220
7.4.1 Order Phthiraptera (Lice) 222
7.4.2 Order Siphonaptera (Fleas) 227
7.4.3 Order Diptera (True Flies) 231
Chapter 8 Parasite Transmission 249
8.1 Introduction 249
8.2 Contaminative Transmission 250
8.3 Transmission Associated with Reproduction 254
8.3.1 Sexual (Venereal) Transmission 254
8.3.2 Transmission within Gametes 256
8.3.3 Congenital Transmission 256
8.4 Autoinfection 259
8.5 Nosocomial Transmission 259
8.6 Active Parasite Transmission 260
8.7 Hosts and Vectors 261
8.7.1 Paratenic Hosts 261
8.7.2 Intermediate Hosts 262
8.7.3 Vectors 263
8.8 Host Factors 266
8.8.1 Host Identification 266
8.8.2 The Influence of Host Behaviour on Parasite Transmission 266
8.8.3 Religion and Parasite Transmission 269
8.8.4 War and Parasite Transmission 271
8.8.5 Parasites Influencing Host Behaviour 271
8.9 Co-Transmission and Interactions Between Pathogens 274
8.10 Environmental Factors 276
8.10.1 Natural Environmental Variables 276
8.10.2 Pollution 276
8.10.3 Climate Change 279
Chapter 9 Immune Reactions to Parasitic Infections 281
9.1 Introduction 281
9.2 Invertebrate Immunity 282
9.3 Vertebrate Immunity 285
9.3.1 Innate Immunity 285
9.3.2 Adaptive Immunity 288
9.3.3 Cell-Mediated Immunity 290
9.4 Innate Immunity to Parasites 292
9.4.1 Physical Factors 292
9.4.2 Chemical and Microbial Factors 292
9.4.3 Acute Inflammatory Response 293
9.4.4 Cell-Mediated Immune Reactions 294
9.5 Adaptive Immune Reactions to Parasites 295
9.6 Microbiomes and Host Immune Reactions to Parasites 297
9.7 Avoiding the Host Immune Response 298
Hide in a ‘safe house’ 299
Stay quiet and do not draw attention to yourself 299
Camouflage 300
Keep changing your disguise 300
Put out false information 302
Neutralise any threats 303
Exhaust the enemy 304
9.8 Immunity to Malaria 304
9.8.1 Plasmodium: Anopheles Interactions 304
9.8.2 Plasmodium: Human Interactions 306
9.9 Schistosoma spp. and Hepatitis C Virus Interactions 309
9.10 HIV-AIDS and Parasitic Infections 309
9.10.1 Parasites and the Transmission of HIV 310
9.10.2 Parasite-HIV Co-Infections 311
Chapter 10 Pathology Part A: Factors Influencing Pathogenesis, How Parasites Cause Pathology, Types of Pathology 315
10.1 Introduction 316
10.2 Factors Influencing Pathogenesis 316
10.2.1 Host Factors 316
10.2.2 Parasite Factors 317
10.3 Mechanisms By Which Parasites Cause Pathology 318
10.3.1 Direct Damage 318
10.3.2 Indirect Damage 320
10.4 Types of Pathology 320
10.4.1 Abortion and Obstetric Pathology 320
10.4.2 Abscesses and Ulcers 321
10.4.3 Anaemia 322
10.4.4 Anorexia 323
10.4.5 Apoptosis 324
10.4.6 Autoimmunity 325
10.4.7 Calcification 326
10.4.8 Cancer 326
10.4.9 Castration 329
10.4.10 Delusional Parasitosis 330
10.4.11 Diarrhoea 331
10.4.12 Elephantiasis 332
10.4.13 Fever 333
10.4.14 Fibrosis 334
10.4.15 Granulation 334
10.4.16 Hyperplasia 336
10.4.17 Hypertrophy 336
10.4.18 Hypoplasia and Hypotrophy 337
10.4.19 Inflammation 337
10.4.20 Jaundice 338
10.4.21 Metaplasia 339
10.4.22 Pressure Atrophy 339
10.4.23 Psychological Disturbance 339
Chapter 11 Pathology Part B: Damage to Specific Organs Co-Infections and Pathogenesis
11.1 Introduction 342
11.2 Damage to Specific Organs 342
11.2.1 Bladder 342
11.2.2 Brain and Nervous System 343
11.2.3 Gastrointestinal Tract 347
11.2.4 Gall Bladder and Bile Ducts 350
11.2.5 Genitalia 350
11.2.6 Kidney 352
11.2.7 Liver 353
11.2.8 Lungs 355
11.2.9 Skin 358
11.2.10 Spleen 363
11.3 Co-Infections and Pathogenesis 364
Chapter 12 The Useful Parasite 367
12.1 Introduction: The Goodness of Parasites? 367
12.2 The Importance of Parasites for the Maintenance of a Healthy Immune System 368
12.2.1 Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus 370
12.2.2 Type 2 Diabetes 372
12.2.3 Irritable Bowel Syndrome 373
12.2.4 Inflammatory Bowel Disease 374
12.3 The Use of Parasites to Treat Medical Conditions 375
12.3.1 Helminth Therapy 375
12.3.2 Maggot Therapy 379
12.3.3 Leech Therapy 382
12.3.4 Malaria Therapy (Malariotherapy) 384
12.4 Parasites as Sources of Novel Pharmaceutically Active Substances 386
12.5 Parasites as Biological Control Agents 389
12.5.1 Life Cycle of the Entomopathogenic Nematodes Heterorhabditis and Steinernema 390
12.6 Parasites as Forensic Indicators 392
Chapter 13 The Identification of Protozoan and Helminth Parasites 395
13.1 Laboratory Testing for Parasitic Infections: Introduction 395
13.2 Importance of Correct Identification 396
13.3 Properties of an Ideal Diagnostic Test 397
13.4 Isolation of Parasites 399
13.5 Identification from Gross Morphology 402
13.5.1 Morphological Identification of Entamoeba spp. 403
13.5.2 Morphological Identification of Plasmodium spp. and Babesia spp. 404
13.5.3 Morphological Identification of Taenia spp. Tapeworms 405
13.5.4 Morphological Identification of Filarial Nematode Infections 406
13.6 Biochemical Techniques for Identification 406
13.7 Immunological Techniques for Identification 407
13.8 Molecular Techniques for Identification 409
13.9 Diagnostic Testing of Parasitic Infections Outside the Laboratory: Introduction 413
13.9.1 Immunochromatographic (Lateral Flow) Tests 413
13.9.2 Point-of-Care Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests (NAATs) 419
Chapter 14 Parasite Treatment 423
14.1 Introduction 423
14.2 The Ideal Antiparasitic Drug 423
14.3 Pharmaceutical Drugs 429
14.4 DNA/RNA Technology 431
14.5 Molecular Chaperones (Heat Shock Proteins) 434
14.6 Nanotechnology 435
14.7 Quantum Dots 437
14.8 Natural Remedies 437
14.9 Homeopathy 441
Chapter 15 Parasite Vaccines 442
15.1 Introduction 442
15.2 The Design and Use of Vaccines 443
15.3 Herd Immunity 443
15.4 Factors Limiting the Production of Commercial Antiparasitic Vaccines 444
15.5 Properties of an Ideal Vaccine 444
15.6 Types of Vaccine 446
15.6.1 Live Attenuated Vaccines 447
15.6.2 Inactivated Vaccines 448
15.6.3 Subunit/Recombinant Vaccines 448
15.6.4 Peptide/Polypeptide Vaccines 450
15.6.5 Carbohydrate Vaccines 450
15.6.6 Toxoid (Anti-toxin) Vaccines 451
15.6.7 Virus-Like Particles Vaccines 451
15.6.8 DNA/RNA Vaccines 452
15.7 Identification of Antigens for Use in Anti-parasite Vaccines 452
15.8 Vaccine Delivery 453
15.9 Vaccines Against Malaria 454
15.10 Nanobodies (Single Domain Antibodies) 455
15.11 Problems with Vaccination Strategies 455
Chapter 16 Parasite Control 457
16.1 Introduction 457
16.2 Eradication, Elimination, and Control 459
16.3 Education 461
16.4 Environmental Modification and Cultural Control 462
16.5 Remote Sensing and GIS Technology 464
16.6 Whether to Treat the Individual or the Population 465
16.7 Piggy-Backing Control Programmes 467
16.8 Disruptions to Control Programmes 467
16.9 Role of Governments, Foundations, and Aid Organisations 469
References 472
Index 541
EULA 557