Parasitology

Dr Alan Gunn has an undergraduate degree in Applied Zoology and a PhD in parasite biochemistry. He is Principal Lecturer and Subject Leader for Biosciences at the School of Biological and Environmental Sciences at Liverpool John Moores University, UK. He has published research papers on many aspects of parasitology and taught parasitology to undergraduates for over 30 years. As well as authoring the successful first edition of 'Parasitology: An integrated approach' he has also written 'Essential Forensic Biology', the third edition of which was published by Wiley-Blackwell in 2019.

Dr Sarah Pitt has an undergraduate degree in Microbiology, MSc in Medical Parasitology & Applied Entomology, and PhD in Microbiology. She is Principal Lecturer in Microbiology at the School of Applied Sciences at the University of Brighton, UK, and a Fellow of the Institute of Biomedical Science. She has published in parasitology, with a particular focus in clinical and diagnostic parasitology. She gained extensive practical parasitological knowledge living and working in Zimbabwe and Tajikistan. She has been teaching parasitology at undergraduate and postgraduate level for over 20 years. As well as the co-author the first edition of 'Parasitology: An integrated approach', she has also written 'Clinical Microbiology for Diagnostic Laboratory Scientists', published by Wiley-Blackwell in January 2018.

Preface

1 Animal Associations and the Importance of Parasites

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Animal associations: commensalism, mutualism, symbiosis, parasitism, the concept of harm.

1.2.1 Symbiosis

1.2.1.1 Symbionts

1.2.1.2 The importance of symbionts to blood-feeding organisms

1.2.2 Commensalism

1.2.3 Phoresis

1.2.4 Mutualism

1.2.5 Parasitism

1.2.5.1 Intra-specific parasites

1.2.6 Parasitoids

1.2.7 The concept of harm

1.3 Parasite hosts

1.4 Zoonotic infections

1.5 The co-evolution of parasites and their hosts

1.5.1 The Red Queen's race hypothesis

1.5.2 Parasites in the fossil record

1.5.3 Parasites and the evolution of sexual reproduction

1.6 Parasitism as a 'lifestyle': advantages and limitations

1.7 The economic cost of parasitic diseases

1.7.1 DALYs: disability-adjusted life years

1.8 Why parasitic diseases remain a problem

2 Taxonomy

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Viruses: a special (unresolved) case

2.3 Taxonomic hierarchy

2.3.1 The Binomen System

2.4 Kingdom Protista

2.5 Kingdom Animalia

2.5.1 Parazoa

2.5.2 Eumetazoa

3 Parasitic Protozoa Part A: Phyla Rhizopoda, Metamonada, Apicomplexa

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Phylum Rhizopoda

3.2.1 Entamoeba histolytica

3.2.2 Entamoeba dispar

3.2.3 Entamoeba moshkovskii

3.2.4 Entamoeba gingivalis

3.2.5 Naegleria fowleri

3.2.6 Balamuthia mandrillaris

3.2.7 Genus Acanthamoeba

3.3 Phylum Metamonada

3.3.1 Order Diplomonadida

3.3.1.1 Genus Giardia

3.3.1.1.1 Giardia duodenalis

3.3.2 Order Trichomonadida

3.3.2.1 Histomonas meleagradis

3.3.2.2 Trichomonas vaginalis

3.3.2.3 Trichomonas tenax

3.3.2.4 Trichomonas gallinae

3.3.2.5 Tritrichomonas foetus

3.3.2.6 Pentatrichomonas hominis

3.4 Phylum Apicomplexa

3.4.1 Genus Plasmodium

3.4.1.1 Plasmodium life cycle

3.4.1.2 Plasmodium falciparum

3.4.1.3 Plasmodium vivax

3.4.1.4 Plasmodium ovale

3.4.1.5 Plasmodium malariae

3.4.1.6 Plasmodium knowlsei

3.4.2 Genus Theileria

3.4.2.1 Theileria life cycle

3.4.2.2 Theileria parva

3.4.3 Genus Babesia

3.4.3.1 Babesia life cycle

3.4.3.2 Babesia bigemina

3.5 Subclass Coccidiasina

3.5.1. Genus Eimeria

3.5.1.1 Eimeria tenella

3.5.2 Genus Isospora

3.5.3 Genus Cytoisospora

3.5.3.1 Cytoisospora (Isospora) belli

3.5.4 Genus Cyclospora

3.5.4.1 Cyclospora cayetanensis

3.5.5 Genus Sarcocystis

3.5.6 Genus Toxoplasma, Toxoplasma gondii

3.5.7 Genus Neospora

3.5.7.1 Neospora caninum

3.5.8 Genus Cryptosporidium

4 Parasitic Protozoa Part B: Phylum Kinetoplastida; Parasitic Algae, and Fungi

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Phylum Kinetoplastida

4.2.1 Genus Leishmania

4.2.1.1 Leishmania life cycle

4.2.1.2 Visceral leishmaniasis

4.2.1.3 Post Kala Azar dermal leishmaniasis

4.2.1.4 Cutaneous leishmaniasis

4.2.2 Genus Trypanosoma

4.2.2.1 Trypanosoma brucei

4.2.2.2 Trypanosoma congolense

4.2.2.3 Trypanosoma evansi

4.2.2.4 Trypanosoma equinum

4.2.2.5 Trypanosoma equiperdum

4.2.2.6 Trypanosoma cruzi

4.3 Phylum Chlorophyta

4.3.1 Genus Prototheca

4.4 Kingdom Fungi

4.4.1 Phylum Microspora

5 Platyhelminth and Acanthocephalan Parasites

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Phylum Platyhelminthes:

5.2.1 Trematoda

5.2.1.1 Family Fasciolidae

5.2.1.1.1 Fasciola hepatica/ Fasciola gigantica

5.2.1.1.2 Fasciolopsis buski

5.2.1.2 Family Dicrocoeliidae

5.2.1.2.1 Dicrocoelium dendriticum

5.2.1.3 Family Paramphistomatidae,

5.2.1.3 Genus Calicophoran, Calicophoran daubneyi

5.2.1.4 Family Opisthorchiformes

5.2.1.4.1 Clonorchis sinensis

5.2.1.4.2 Opisthorchis viverrini

5.2.1.4.3 Opisthorchis felineus

5.2.1.5 Family Paragonomidae

5.2.1.5.1 Paragonimus westermani

5.2.1.6 Family Cathaemasiidae, Genus Ribeiroia

5.2.1.7 Family Schistosomatidae: Schistosoma mansoni, Schistosoma japonicum, Schistosoma haematobium.

5.3 Class Cestoda

5.3.1 Order Pseudophyllidea/ Diphyllobothridea

5.3.1.1 Genus Diphyllobothrium

5.3.1.1.1 Diphyllobothrium latum

5.3.2 Order Cyclophyllidea

5.3.2.1 Family Taeniidae

5.3.2.1.1 Taenia solium

5.3.2.1.2 Taenia saginata

5.3.2.1.3 Taenia hydatigena

5.3.2.1.4 Taenia multiceps

5.3.2.2 Genus Echinococcus

5.3.2.2.1 Echinococcus granulosus,

5.3.2.2.2 Echinococcus multilocularis

5.3.2.3 Family Anoplocephalidae

5.3.2.3.1 Anoplocephala perfoliata

5.3.2.3.2 Moniezia expansa and Moniezia benedeni

5.4 Phylum Acanthocephala

6 Nematode Parasites

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Class Enoplea

6.2.1 Genus Trichuris

6.2.2. Genus Trichinella

6.2.2.1 Trichinella spiralis

6.3 Class Rhabdita

6.3.1 Genus Strongyloides

6.3.1.1 Strongyloides stercoralis

6.3.2 Genus Ancylostoma

6.3.3 Genus Necator

6.3.4 Genus Ascaris

6.3.5 Genus Enterobius, Enterobius vermicularis

6.3.6 Genus Toxocara, Toxocara canis

6.3.7 Genus Anisakis

6.3.8 Family Onchocercidae

6.3.8.1 Genus Onchocerca

6.3.8.2 Genus Wuchereria, Wuchereria bancrofti

6.3.8.3 Genus Brugia

6.3.8.4 Genus Loa, Loa loa

6.3.8.5 Family Dracunculidae, Dracunculus medinensis

7 Arthropod Parasites

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Phylum Chelicerata

7.2.1 Demodicidae

7.2.2 Family Sarcoptidae

7.2.2.1 Genus Sarcoptes

7.2.2.2 Genus Notoedres, Notoedres cati

7.2.2.3 Genus Knemidocoptes

7.2.3 Family Psoroptidae

7.2.3.1 Genus Psoroptes

7.2.4 Suborder Ixodida

7.2.4.1 Family Argasidae

7.2.4.1.1 Argas persicus

7.2.4.2 Family Ixodidae

7.3 Phylum Crustacea

7.3.1 Subclass Copepoda

7.3.2 Infraclass Cirripedia

7.3.3 Subclass Branchiura

7.3.4 Subclass Pentastomida

7.4 Subphylum Hexapoda

7.4.1 Order Pthiraptera (lice)

7.4.2 Order Siphonaptera (fleas)

7.4.3 Order Diptera (true flies)

7.4.3.1 Suborder Nematocera

7.4.3.2 Suborder Brachycera

7.4.3.2.1 Family Calliphoridae

7.4.3.2.1.1 Genus Chrysomya

7.4.3.2.1.2 Genus Cochliomyia

7.4.3.2.1.3 Genus Auchmeromyia

7.4.3.2.1.4 Genus Cordylobia

7.4.3.2.2 Family Sarcophagidae

7.4.3.2.3 Family Oestridae

7.4.3.2.3.1 Subfamily Oestrinae

7.4.3.2.3.1.1 Oestrus ovis

7.4.3.2.3.2 Subfamily Gasterophilinae

7.4.3.2.3.3 Subfamily Hypodermatinae

7.4.3.2.3.4 Subfamily Cuterebrinae

7.4.3.2.3.4.1 Dermatobia hominis

7.4.3.2.4 Family Streblidae

7.4.3.2.5 Family Nycteribiidae

8 Parasite Transmission

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Contaminative Transmission

8.3 Transmission associated with reproduction

8.3.1 Sexual (Venereal) Transmission

8.3.2 Transmission within Gametes

8.3.3 Congenital Transmission

8.4 Autoinfection

8.5 Nosocomial Transmission

8.6 Active Parasite Transmission

8.7 Hosts and Vectors

8.7.1 Paratenic Hosts

8.7.2 Intermediate Hosts

8.7.3 Vectors

8.8 Host Factors

8.8.1 Host identification

8.8.2 The Influence of Host Behaviour on Parasite Transmission

8.8.3 Religion and Parasite Transmission

8.8.4 War and Parasite Transmission

8.8.5 Parasites Influencing Host Behaviour

8.9 Co- Transmission and Interactions between Pathogens

8.10 Environmental Factors

8.10.1 Natural Environmental Variables

8.10.2 Pollution

8.10.3 Climate Change

9 Immune Reactions to Parasitic Infections

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Invertebrate immunity

9.3 Vertebrate Immunity

9.3.1 Innate Immunity

9.3.2 Adaptive Immunity

9.3.3 Cell Mediated Immunity

9.4 Innate Immunity to Parasites

9.4.1 Physical Factors

9.4.2 Chemical and Microbial Factors

9.4.3 Acute Inflammatory Response

9.4.4 Cell Mediated Immune Reactions

9.5 Adaptive Immune Reactions to Parasites

9.6 Microbiomes and Host Immune Reactions to Parasites

9.7 Avoiding the Host Immune Response

9.8 Immunity to Malaria

9.8.1 Plasmodium: Anopheles Interactions

9.8.2 Plasmodium: Human Interactions

9.8.2.1 Innate Immune Mechanisms against Malaria

9.8.2.2 Antibodies against Malaria

9.8.2.3 Why Humans do not Develop Protective Immunity against Malaria

9.9 Schistosoma spp. and Hepatitis C Virus Interactions

9.10 HIV-AIDS and Parasitic infections

9.10.1 Parasites and the Transmission of HIV

9.10.2 Parasite-HIV Co-Infections

9.10.2.1 Leishmania-HIV Co-Infections

9.10.2.1.1 The Increasing Problem of HIV-Leishmania Co-Infections

9.10.2.2 Malaria-HIV Co-Infections

9.10.2.3 Toxoplasma-HIV Co-Infections

9.10.2.4 Microsporidia-HIV Co-Infections

10 Pathology Part A: Factors Influencing Pathogenesis, How Parasites Cause Pathology, Types of Pathology

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Factors that Influence Pathogenesis

10.2.1 Host Factors

10.2.2 Parasite Factors

10.3 Mechanisms by which Parasites Cause Pathology

10.3.1 Direct Damage

10.3.2 Indirect Damage

10.4 Types of Pathology

10.4.1 Abortion and Obstetric Pathology

10.4.2 Abscesses and Ulcers

10.4.3 Anaemia

10.4.4 Anorexia

10.4.5 Apoptosis

10.4.6 Autoimmunity

10.4.7 Calcification

10.4.8 Cancer

10.4.9 Castration

10.4.10 Delusional Parasitosis

10.4.11 Diarrhoea

10.4.12 Elephantiasis

10.4.13 Fever

10.4.14 Fibrosis

10.4.15 Granulation

10.4.16 Hyperplasia

10.4.17 Hypertrophy

10.4.18 Hypoplasia and Hypotrophy

10.4.19 Inflammation

10.4.20 Jaundice

10.4.21 Metaplasia

10.4.22 Pressure Atrophy

10.4.23 Psychological Disturbance.

11 Pathology Part B: Damage to Specific Organs; Co-Infections and Pathogenesis

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Damage to Specific Organs

11.2.1 Bladder

11.2.2 Brain and Nervous System

11.2.3 Gastrointestinal Tract

11.2.4 Gall bladder and Bile Ducts

11.2.5 Genitalia

11.2.6 Kidney

11.2.7 Liver

11.2.8 Lungs

11.2.9 Skin

11.2.10 Spleen

11.3 Co-Infections and Pathogenesis

12 The Useful Parasite

12.1 Introduction: The Goodness of Parasites?

12.2 The Importance of Parasites for the Maintenance of a Healthy Immune System

12.2.1 Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

12.2.2 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

12.2.3 Irritable Bowel Syndrome

12.2.4 Inflammatory Bowel Disease type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease

12.3 The Use of Parasites to Treat Medical Conditions

12.3.1 Helminth Therapy

12.3.1.1Helminth Therapy in Practice

12.3.2 Maggot Therapy

12.3.2.1 Maggot Therapy in Practice

12.3.2.2 How Maggot Therapy Works

12.3.3 Leech Therapy

12.3.3.1 Leech Therapy in Practice

12.3.4 Malaria Therapy (Malariotherapy)

12.4 Parasites as Sources of Novel Pharmacologically Active Substances

12.5 Parasites as Biological Control Agents

12.5.1 Life cycle of the Entomopathogenic Nematodes Heterorhabditis and Steinernema

12.6 Parasites as Forensic Indicators

13 The Identification of Protozoan and Helminth Parasites

13.1 Laboratory Testing for Parasitic Infections: Introduction

13.2 Importance of Correct Identification

13.3 Properties of an Ideal Diagnostic Test

13.4 Isolation of Parasites

13.5 Identification from Gross Morphology

13.5.1 Morphological Identification of Entamoeba spp.

13.5.2 Morphological Identification of Plasmodium spp. and Babesia spp.

13.5.3 Morphological Identification of Taenia spp. tapeworms

13.5.4 Morphological Identification of Filarial Nematode Infections

13.6 Biochemical Techniques for Identification

13.7 Immunological Techniques for Identification

13.8 Molecular Techniques for Identification

13.9 Diagnostic Testing of Parasitic Infections Outside the Laboratory: Introduction

13.9.1 Immunochromatographic (Lateral Flow) Tests

13.9.1.1 Detection of Parasites in Blood with LFDs

13.9.1.1.1 Detection of Plasmodium spp. with LFDs

13.9.1.1.2 Detection of Leishmania spp. with LFDs

13.9.1.2 Detection of Parasites in Faeces with LFDs

13.9.1.2.1 Detection of Faecal Protozoa with LFDs

13.9.1.2.2 Detection of Helminths in Faeces with LFDs

13.9.2 Point of Care Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests (NAATS)

13.9.2.1 Detection of Trichomonas vaginalis using POCT NAATs

13.9.2.2: Detection of Plasmodium spp. using POCT NAATs

13.9.2.3 Invertebrate vector and intermediate host monitoring using POCT NAATs

14 Parasite Treatment

14.1 Introduction

14.2 The Ideal Antiparasitic Drug

14.3 Pharmaceutical Drugs

14.4 DNA/ RNA Technology

14.5 Molecular Chaperones (Heat Shock Proteins)

14.6 Nanotechnology

14.7 Quantum Dots

14.8 Natural Remedies

14.9 Homeopathy

15 Parasite Vaccines

15.1 Introduction

15.2 The Design and Use of Vaccines

15.3 Herd Immunity

15.4 Factors Limiting the Production of Commercial Antiparasitic Vaccines

15.5 Properties of an Ideal Vaccine

15.6 Types of Vaccine

15.6.1 Live Attenuated Vaccines

15.6.2 Inactivated Vaccines

15.6.3 Subunit/ Recombinant Vaccines

15.6.4 Peptide/ Polypeptide Vaccines

15.6.5 Carbohydrate Vaccines

15.6.6 Toxoid (anti-toxin) Vaccines

15.6.7 Virus-Like Particles Vaccines

15.6.8 DNA/ RNA Vaccines

15.7 Identification of Antigens for use in Anti-parasite Vaccines

15.8 Vaccine Delivery

15.9 Vaccines Against Malaria

15.10 Nanobodies (Single Domain Antibodies)

15.11 Problems with Vaccination Strategies

16 Parasite Control

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Eradication, Elimination, and Control

16.3 Education

16.4 Environmental Modification and Cultural Control

16.5 Remote Sensing and GIS Technology

16.6 Whether to treat the Individual or the Population

16.7 Piggy-Backing Control Programmes

16.8 Disruptions to Control Programmes

16.9 Role of Governments, Foundations, and Aid Organisations

References

Index