Novel Technologies in Food Science

Navnidhi Chhikara, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Food Technology at Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology, Hisar, India. She has eleven years of teaching and research experience and has taught various subjects, including health foods and food safety at the graduate and postgraduate levels. She has published more than sixty research papers in scientific and technical journals, is an editor and editorial board member of multiple international journals and has received numerous awards for her scholarship. Anil Panghal, PhD, is an assistant scientist in the Department of Processing and Food Engineering at CCS Haryana Agricultural University. Previously, he worked with Nestle as a production manager for nine years. His areas of expertise include bioprocessing, manufacturing, food chemistry, food science, and technology, FSMS, and nutrition. He obtained his PhD in food technology, focusing on the molecular and physicochemical quality aspects of commercial wheat varieties. He has published various research papers in reputed journals and chapters for international publishers. Gaurav Chaudhary, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Renewable and Bio-Energy Engineering at the College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University in Hisar, India. He received PhD from the Indian Institute of Technology in Roorkee, India in the field of biofuel and bioenergy. He has more than seven years of experience in teaching and research in the fields of bioenergy and biochemical engineering and has published many research articles in scientific and technical journals.

Preface xvii

1 Ultrasound 1
Hugo Scudino, Jonas Toledo Guimarães, Angela Suárez-Jacobo, Hilda María Hernández-Hernández, Tatiana Colombo Pimentel, Socorro Josefina Villanueva Rodríguez, Vitoria Hagemann Cauduro, Erick Almeida Esmerino, Erico Marlon Moraes Flores and Adriano Gomes da Cruz

1.1 Introduction 2

1.2 Basic Principles of Ultrasound 3

1.2.1 Generation of the Ultrasonic Wave 4

1.2.2 Principles of Acoustic Cavitation 5

1.3 Mechanisms of Microbial Inactivation 6

1.4 Ultrasound Application in the Food Industry 17

1.4.1 Impact of Ultrasound on Physicochemical Quality Indicators of Food 20

1.4.1.1 Meat Products 20

1.4.1.2 Fruits and Vegetables 21

1.4.1.3 Dairy Industry 22

1.4.2 Effects of Ultrasound Treatment on Sensory Characteristics of Foods 23

1.5 Conclusion 28

References 29

2 Pulse Electric Field: Novel Technology in Food Processing 39
Navnidhi Chhikara, Anil Panghal, D.N. Yadav, Sandeep Mann and Priya Bishnoi

2.1 Introduction 39

2.2 Principle 40

2.3 Electroporation 42

2.4 PEF System 42

2.5 Factors Affecting PEF 44

2.5.1 Process Factors 44

2.5.2 Food Matrix 45

2.5.3 Microbial Factors 46

2.6 Benefits and Shortcomings of PEF 46

2.7 Application in Food Industry 47

2.7.1 Drying 47

2.7.2 Food Preservation 49

2.7.3 Improvement of Extraction of Intracellular Compounds 52

2.8 Effect of PEF on Food Components 53

2.8.1 Proximate Composition 53

2.8.2 Other Components 54

2.8.3 Sensory Attributes 54

2.9 Conclusion 55

References 55

3 An Overview of Membrane Technology in Dairy & Food Industry 65
Sunil Kumar Khatkar, Kuldeep Dudi, Shubham Arjun Lonkar, Kiranpreet Singh Sidhu, Anju Boora Khatkar, Narender Kumar Chandla and Anil Panghal

List of Abbreviations 66

3.1 Introduction 68

3.2 Terminology in Membrane Processing 69

3.2.1 Membrane 69

3.2.2 Permeate 69

3.2.3 Retentive/Retentate 69

3.2.4 Fouling 69

3.2.5 Concentration Polarization 69

3.2.6 Concentration Factor 70

3.2.7 Feed 70

3.2.8 Flux 70

3.2.9 Pore Size 70

3.2.10 Molecular Weight Cut-Off 70

3.3 Types of Membrane 70

3.3.1 Microporous Membrane 70

3.3.2 Nonporous, Dense Membrane 71

3.3.3 Electrically Charged Membranes 71

3.3.4 Anisotropic Membranes (Asymmetrical) 71

3.3.5 Ceramic, Metal and Liquid Membranes 72

3.4 Processes in Membrane Technology 72

3.4.1 Microfiltration (MF) 72

3.4.2 Ultrafiltration (UF) 72

3.4.3 Nano-Filtration (NF) 73

3.4.4 Reverse Osmosis (RO) 73

3.5 Membrane Modules 74

3.6 Mechanism of Mass Transfer in Membrane Separation 76

3.6.1 Concentration Polarization (CP) 76

3.6.2 Membrane Fouling 77

3.6.3 Major Categories of Fouling 78

3.6.3.1 Inorganic Fouling 78

3.6.3.2 Organic Fouling 78

3.6.3.3 Colloidal Fouling 78

3.6.3.4 Biological Fouling 79

3.7 Mechanism of Membrane Fouling 79

3.8 Factors Influencing Fouling of Membrane 80

3.8.1 Properties of Membrane 81

3.8.2 Feed Properties 81

3.8.3 Operating Parameters 82

3.9 Prevention of Membrane Fouling 82

3.9.1 Type of Feed and Pre-Treatment 82

3.9.2 Operating Parameters 83

3.9.2.1 Operating Pressure 83

3.9.2.2 Operating Temperature 83

3.9.2.3 Feed Velocity 83

3.10 Mass Transfer Model for Filtration Process in Absence of Fouling 83

3.10.1 Diffusion Theory Through Dense Membrane 84

3.10.2 Transfer Through Porous Membrane - Convective Transfer - Pore Flow Model 85

3.11 Application of the Membrane Technology in Dairy Industry 85

3.11.1 Microfiltration 85

3.11.1.1 Waste Water Processing 85

3.11.1.2 Production of the Protein Concentrate 86

3.11.1.3 Isolation 86

3.11.1.4 Separation of Micellar Casein from the Milk 86

3.11.1.5 Pretreatment of the Cheese Milk 87

3.11.2 Ultrafiltration 87

3.11.2.1 Enzyme Recovery and Concentration 87

3.11.2.2 Cheese Manufacturing 87

3.11.3 Nanofiltration 88

3.11.4 Reverse Osmosis 88

3.12 Application of Membrane Technology in Food Industry 88

3.12.1 Beverages 89

3.12.2 Clarification, Concentration, and Sterilization of Fruit Juices 89

3.12.3 Concentration, De-Acidification, and Demineralization of Juices 90

3.12.4 Demineralization of Sugar Syrup 91

3.12.5 Manufacturing of Beverages Using Vegetable Proteins 91

3.12.6 Rough Beer Clarification 92

3.12.7 Preservation of Beer 92

3.12.8 Membrane Processing in the Wine Industry 92

3.12.9 Membrane Processing in Fish, Poultry, and Gelatin Industry 94

3.13 Uses of Membrane Technology in Biotechnology 94

3.13.1 Purification of Proteins 94

3.13.2 Purification of Antibody 94

3.13.3 Controlled Protein Digestion - A Substrate for Mass Spectroscopy 95

3.13.4 Enantiomer Isolation from Racemic Mixtures 95

3.14 Membrane Distillation 96

References 98

4 Cold Plasma 109
Rodrigo Nunes Cavalcanti, Tatiana Colombo Pimentel, Erick Almeida Esmerino, Monica Queiroz de Freitas, Silvani Verruck, Marcia Cristina Silva and Adriano Gomes da Cruz

4.1 Introduction 109

4.2 Principles and Methods of Plasma Generation 111

4.3 Cold Plasma Applied in Food Systems 115

4.3.1 Modification of Food Components Functionality 115

4.3.2 Cold Plasma Mechanisms Involved in Microbial Inactivation 127

4.3.3 Decontamination of Mycotoxins and Pesticides By Cold Plasma 139

4.3.4 Cold Plasma Mechanisms Involved in Enzyme Inactivation 142

4.3.5 Cold Plasma for Food Packaging 143

4.3.6 Cold Plasma in Biofilms and Surfaces Treatment 150

4.3.7 Cold Plasma in Wastewater Treatment 151

4.4 Conclusions 152

References 152

5 Utilization of Magnetic Fields in Food Industry 171
S. Abinaya, Anil Panghal, Roopa H., Navnidhi Chhikara, Anju Kumari and Rakesh Gehlot

5.1 Introduction 172

5.2 Magnetism 173

5.2.1 Classification of Magnetic Fields 175

5.2.2 Generation of Magnetic Field 176

5.2.3 Magnetic Field Around a Current Carrying Conductor 177

5.2.4 Effect of Magnetic Fields in Biological Systems 179

5.2.4.1 Effect on Microorganisms 180

5.2.4.2 Operating Conditions 185

5.2.4.3 Characteristics of Magnetic Field 185

5.2.4.4 Temperature 185

5.2.4.5 Microbial Growth Stage 185

5.2.4.6 Electrical Resistivity 186

5.2.4.7 Effect on Enzymes 186

5.3 Potential Applications of Magnetic Fields in Food Industry 190

5.3.1 Compositional Analysis 190

5.3.1.1 Water 190

5.3.1.2 Fat 191

5.3.1.3 Protein 192

5.3.2 Structure Analysis 192

5.4 Food Processing 193

5.4.1 Freezing 193

5.4.2 Drying 195

5.4.3 Frying 197

5.4.4 Fermentation 198

5.4.5 Extraction 199

5.4.6 Packaging 200

5.5 Quality Inspection 200

5.5.1 Fruits 200

5.5.1.1 Apples 213

5.5.1.2 Citrus Fruits 213

5.5.1.3 Kiwifruit 214

5.5.2 Vegetables 215

5.5.2.1 Tomato 215

5.5.2.2 Potatoes 216

5.5.3 Cereal and Cereal Products 217

5.5.4 Seafood 218

5.5.5 Other Food Applications 222

5.6 Conclusion 224

References 224

6 Microwaves Application to Food and Food Waste Processing 235
Cristina Barrera, Pedro J. Fito, Marta Castro-Giráldez, Noelia Betoret and Lucía Seguí

6.1 Introduction to Microwave Technology. Basis of Photon-Matter Interaction in the Microwave Range 236

6.2 Microwaves Applications to Food Process Monitoring 238

6.3 Microwaves in Food Processing 240

6.4 Microwaves Contribution to Food Waste Valorization Processes 246

6.4.1 Microwaves as A Pretreatment for Food Waste Transformation Into Biofuels and Other Value-Added Products 246

6.4.2 Microwaves Applied to the Recovery of Bio-Compounds from Food Wastes 251

6.5 Microwaves for Functional Food Development and Increased Bioaccessibility 253

6.6 Conclusions and Prospects 257

References 258

7 Radio-Frequency Technology in Food Processing 271
Aastha Dewan, Anil Panghal, Bahareh Dabaghiannejad, Vivek Ranga, Naveen Kumar and Navnidhi Chhikara

7.1 Introduction 272

7.2 RF Technology and Principle 272

7.2.1 Types and Equipment 274

7.2.2 RF vs. Microwave (MW) Heating 276

7.3 Application of RF in Processing 276

7.3.1 Drying 276

7.3.2 Baking 285

7.3.3 Sterilization & Pasteurization 287

7.3.4 Roasting 289

7.3.5 Blanching 289

7.3.6 Thawing and Defrosting 290

7.3.7 Inhibition of Anti-Nutritional Factors 290

7.3.8 Disinfestation 291

7.4 Effect on Food Quality 292

7.4.1 Microbiological Quality 292

7.4.2 Nutritional Quality 293

7.5 Future Scope/Prospectus 298

7.6 Conclusion 298

References 299

8 Ultrasound Technology in Food Processing: Technology, Mechanisms and Applications 307
Kaidi Peng, Olivier Bals, Eugène Vorobiev and Mohamed Koubaa

8.1 Introduction 307

8.2 Mechanisms of Action of Ultrasound Technology 308

8.3 Equipment Used for Ultrasonic Applications 312

8.4 Selected Applications of Ultrasounds in Food Processing 315

8.4.1 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction 316

8.4.2 Ultrasound-Assisted Fermentation 316

8.4.3 Ultrasound-Assisted Filtration 318

8.4.4 Ultrasound-Assisted Emulsification 319

8.4.5 Ultrasound-Assisted Drying 320

8.4.6 Ultrasound-Assisted Freezing and Crystallization 321

8.5 Conclusions 323

References 324

9 Irradiation of Food 333
Monalisa Sahoo, Pramod Aradwad, Chirasmita Panigrahi, Vivek Kumar and S. N. Naik

9.1 Irradiation 334

9.1.1 Sources of Radiation 334

9.1.2 Dose Range & Dose Mapping 335

9.1.3 Packaging Material for Irradiation 337

9.2 Techniques for Food Irradiation 338

9.2.1 Gamma Rays Irradiators 338

9.2.2 Electron Beam Accelerators 340

9.2.2.1 Direct Methods 341

9.2.2.2 Induction Methods 341

9.2.2.3 Microwave or Radio-Frequency Methods 341

9.2.3 X-Rays (Bremsstrahlung) Irradiators 341

9.3 Wholesomeness of Irradiated Foods 343

9.4 Application of Irradiation on Different Food Commodities 343

9.4.1 Sanitation and Decontamination 344

9.4.2 Sprout Inhibition and Delay in Ripening 344

9.4.3 Insects and Pest Control 349

9.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Irradiation of Food 349

9.5.1 Advantages of Food Irradiation 349

9.5.2 Disadvantages of Food Irradiation 350

9.6 Factors Affecting Irradiation of Food 351

9.6.1 Water Content 351

9.6.2 Temperature 351

9.7 Interaction of Ionizing Radiation and Food Components 352

9.8 Interaction of Ionizing Radiation and Biological Cells 353

9.9 Interaction of Ionizing Radiation and Food Packaging Materials 354

9.10 Detection and Risk Assessment 354

9.10.1 Detection of Irradiation 354

9.10.2 Risk Assessment of Irradiated Foods 354

9.11 Consumer Behavior Towards Irradiated Food 356

9.12 Standards, Regulations and Legislation on Food Irradiation 357

9.12.1 International Standards 358

9.12.1.1 Human Health 358

9.12.1.2 Labelling 358

9.12.1.3 Plant Protection 359

9.12.1.4 Facilities 359

9.12.1.5 Dosimetry 359

9.12.1.6 Packaging 360

9.12.2 National Regulations 360

9.12.2.1 Regulations for Human Health 360

9.12.2.2 Regulations for Labeling 361

9.12.2.3 Regulations for Plant Health 361

9.13 Future Perspectives and Conclusions 362

References 362

10 Active Packaging in Food Industry 375
Roopa H., Anil Panghal, Anju Kumari, Navnidhi Chhikara, Ekta Sehgal and Kritika Rawat

10.1 Introduction 376

10.2 Active Packaging Components 378

10.2.1 Oxygen Scavengers 379

10.2.2 Carbondioxide Absorber/Emitter 383

10.2.3 Ethylene Scavengers 383

10.2.4 Flavor & Odor Absorber/Emitter 384

10.2.5 Humidity Control 384

10.3 Antimicrobial Packaging 384

10.3.1 Composition 385

10.3.2 Mechanism of Antimicrobial Agents 386

10.3.3 Types of Antimicrobial Packaging 388

10.3.3.1 Antimicrobial Agent Sachets/Pads are Inserted Into Packages 388

103.3.2 Antimicrobial Agents are Directly Incorporated Into Polymers 389

10.3.3.3 Coating or Adsorbing Antimicrobials to Polymer Surfaces 389

10.3.3.4 Immobilization of Antimicrobials by Ionic or Covalent Linkages to Polymers 389

10.3.4 Commercial Antimicrobial Packaging Products and Manufactures 390

10.4 Uses of Active Packaging 390

10.5 Comparison Between Active and Intelligent Packaging 390

10.6 Market Report on Active and Intelligent Packaging 391

10.7 Disadvantage 392

10.8 Advantage 393

10.9 Safety Issues in Active Packaging 393

10.10 Applications in Food Industry 395

10.11 Recent Advancement in Antimicrobial Packaging Films 397

10.12 Challenges 398

10.13 Conclusion 398

References 399

11 Supercritical Fluid 405
Cassia Pereira Barros, Jonas Toledo Guimarães, Tatiana Colombo Pimentel, Erick Almeida Esmerino, Socorro Josefina Villanueva-Rodríguez and Adriano Gomes da Cruz

11.1 Introduction 405

11.2 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO2) Technology: General Aspects and Fundamentals 407

11.3 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO2) Processing 411

11.4 Applications in Food Processing 413

11.4.1 Extraction and Fractionation of Food Compounds 413

11.4.2 Enzymatic and Microbial Inactivation 422

11.4.3 Effects on Physicochemical Parameters 432

11.4.4 Effects on Sensory Properties 434

11.5 Advantages and Limitations of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO2) 435

References 441

12 Image Processing for Food Safety and Quality 451
Krishna Kumar Patel, S. K. Goyal and Yashwant Kumar Patel

12.1 Introduction 452

Image Acquisition Techniques 454

(1) Image acquisition Technique for External Quality Assessment 454

Computer Vision 454

Principle of Computer Vision and Its Basic Components 456

Image Processing 457

Application of Image Processing 462

Sorting and Grading of Fruits and Vegetables 462

Defect Detection of Fruits and Vegetables 464

Cereals/Grains Assessment 464

Processed Food 465

(2) Image Acquisition Technique for Internal Quality Assessment 466

Application MRI, X-Ray and CT 471

Conclusion 473

References 473

13 High Pressure Processing: An Overview 479
Yashwant Kumar Patel and Krishna Kumar Patel

13.1 Introduction 480

13.2 What is HPP? 481

13.3 Historical Background 481

13.4 Principle of High Pressure Processing 483

13.5 Classification of High Pressure Processing Equipment 486

13.5.1 Pressure Application Based HPP Equipments 486

13.5.2 Processing System Based HPP Equipments 487

13.5.3 HPP Based on Energy Recovery System 488

13.5.4 HPP System Based on Vessel Arrangement 488

13.6 Effects of HPP on Food Derivatives 488

13.6.1 Effect of HPP on Color, Texture and Sensory Attributes 488

13.6.2 Effect on Fat 489

13.6.3 Effect on Carbohydrates, Proteins and Molecular Weight of Molecules 490

13.6.4 Effect of HPP on Other Bio-Active Molecules 491

13.7 Effect on Microorganisms during HPP 491

13.7.1 Critical Processing Parameters of HPP 492

13.7.1.1 Pressure and Time 493

13.7.1.2 Temperature 493

13.7.1.3 pH 494

13.7.1.4 The Water Activity (aw) 495

13.8 Kinetics Belongs to Microbial Growth and Inactivation 495

13.8.1 D Value 495

13.8.2 Z Value (°C) 497

13.8.3 F Value (Second) 497

13.8.4 Spoilage Probability 497

13.9 Packaging Importance in HPP 498

13.10 High Pressure Processing Applications 499

13.10.1 Fruits, Vegetables and Processed Food Products 500

13.10.2 Meat and Sea-Foods 502

13.11 Benefits and Drawbacks 502

13.12 Future Prospects of the HPP 504

13.13 Conclusion 504

References 505

14 Artificial Intelligence in Food Processing 511
Manish Tiwari, H. Pandey, Arunima Mukherjee and R. F. Sutar

14.1 Introduction 512

14.2 Evolution of Artificial Intelligence 514

14.3 Principles of Artificial Intelligence 515

14.4 Global Developments in Artificial Intelligence 518

14.5 Artificial Intelligence and Food Processing 520

14.6 Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Food Processing 521

14.6.1 Sorting Fresh Produce 522

14.6.2 Quality Assessment 522

14.6.2.1 Using AI Methods 522

14.6.2.2 Using Integrated Computer Vision-AI System 530

14.6.3 Flavor Identification 535

14.6.4 Drying Technology 537

14.6.5 Food Safety Compliance 537

14.6.6 Cleaning Food Processing Equipment 538

14.6.7 Efficient Supply Chain Management 538

14.6.8 Anticipating Consumer Preferences 538

14.6.9 Developing New Products 539

14.7 Challenges 539

14.8 Future Aspects 539

Conclusions 540

References 541

15 Ohmic Heating 551
Ramon da Silva Rocha, Cássia Pereira Barros, Tatiana Colombo Pimentel, Paola Mutti, Massimo Cigarini, Matteo Di Rocco, Andrea Brutti, Cristina Alamprese, Marcia Cristina Silva, Erick Almeida Esmerino and Adriano Gomes da Cruz

15.1 Definition 552

15.2 Microbial Inactivation 554

15.3 Applications 564

15.3.1 Dairy 564

15.3.2 Meat and Fish 574

15.3.2.1 Meat 574

15.3.2.2 Fish 580

15.3.3 Eggs and Egg Products 584

15.3.4 Cereal Products 586

15.3.5 Juices 591

15.4 Commercial Status 593

15.5 Limitations and Advantages 594

References 597

Index 611