Therapeutic Use of Medicinal Plants and Their Extracts: Volume 1 (eBook)

Prof. Alamgir has been working as professor in the Department of Botany, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, for the last 30 years. He teaches plant physiology, biochemistry and pharmacognosy at undergraduate and postgraduate levels.

Contents 7
Abbreviations 9
1 Introduction 16
Abstract 16
1.1 Therapeutic Use of Medicinal Plants and Their Extracts: A Historical Perspective 17
1.2 Pharmacognosy: A Multidisciplinary Science of Crude Drugs 19
1.3 Importance of Pharmacognosical Study and Development CAMs Concept 21
1.4 Medicinal Plants and Their Metabolites of Pharmacognostical Importance 22
1.5 Pharmacognosy and Trade of Medicinal Plants 24
1.6 Traditional and Modern Pharmacognosy 25
1.7 New Trends in Pharmacognosy 27
References 29
2 Origin, Definition, Scope and Area, Subject Matter, Importance, and History of Development of Pharmacognosy 33
Abstract 33
2.1 Origin, Definition, Scope, and Avenue of Pharmacognosy 34
2.2 Subject Matter of Pharmacognosy and Classification 36
2.3 Contribution of Pharmacognosy in Pharmacy and Pharmacology 38
2.4 History of Development of Pharmacognosy 40
2.5 Drug Literature, Publication, and the Related Technical Words 61
2.5.1 Drug Literature and Publication 61
2.5.2 Related Technical Words 64
2.5.3 Apothecary 68
2.5.4 Pharmacists 71
References 73
3 Medicinal, Non-medicinal, Biopesticides, Color- and Dye-Yielding Plants Secondary Metabolites and Drug Principles
Abstract 75
3.1 Medicinal Plants and Their Characteristics, Secondary Metabolites, and Drug Principles 78
3.1.1 Metabolites and Metabolic Pathways: Primary and Secondary Metabolites of Plants and Related Pathways 78
3.1.2 Alkaloids 81
3.1.3 Terpenoids 81
3.1.4 Phenolic Compounds 82
3.1.5 Secondary Metabolites and Drug Principles 82
3.1.6 Significance of Medicinal Plants to Man 84
3.2 Factors Affecting the Production of Secondary Metabolites in Medicinal Plants 85
3.3 Contribution of Medicinal Plants to the Development of Modern Medicine 86
3.4 (i) Non-medicinal, (ii) Poisonous, (iii) Psychoactive (Stimulant, Hallucinogenic, Depressant, and Aphrodisiac), (iv) Allergenic, (v) Teratogenic and (vi) Toxic Plants 88
3.5 Biopesticides 94
3.5.1 Weedicides 94
3.6 Natural Colors and Dyes 95
3.7 Importance of Drugs from Natural Sources 96
3.8 Use of Medicinal Plants in Indigenous Traditional Systems of Medicine: Ayurveda, Unani, Homeopathy, Aromapathy, Siddha, Yoga, Naturopathy, Folk Medicine, Native North American Medicine, Western Herbal Medicine 96
3.8.1 Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) 97
3.8.2 Traditional Ayurvedic Medicine 97
3.8.3 Traditional Unani Medicine 101
3.8.4 Homoeopathy 103
3.8.5 Aromatherapy 105
3.8.6 Traditional Siddha Medicine 107
3.8.7 Yoga 108
3.8.8 Naturopathy 108
3.8.9 Folk Medicine 109
3.8.10 Traditional North American Medicine 110
3.8.11 Traditional Western Herbal Medicine 111
3.9 Use of Medicinal Plants in Complementary and Alternative Medicines (CAMs) 112
3.10 Modern Medicine 113
3.11 Scientific Basis of Herbal Medicine and Its Merits and Demerits 114
3.11.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Herbal Medicine 114
References 115
4 Drugs: Their Natural, Synthetic, and Biosynthetic Sources 119
Abstract 119
4.1 Drugs and Crude Drugs 121
4.2 Sources of Drugs 122
4.2.1 Biological Sources 123
4.2.1.1 Plant, Animal, and Microbial Sources 123
4.2.1.2 Marine Sources 130
4.2.2 Mineral (Metallic and Non-metallic) Sources 130
4.2.3 Geographical or Habitat Sources 130
4.2.4 New Drug from Microbiological Conversion, Aberrant Synthesis in Higher Plants, Cell Tissue, and Organ Culture 131
4.2.5 Semi-synthetic, Synthetic, and Biosynthetic Sources 133
4.2.6 Importance of Crude Drugs from Natural Sources 134
References 135
5 Classification of Drugs, Nutraceuticals, Functional Food, and Cosmeceuticals Proteins, Peptides, and Enzymes as Drugs
Abstract 138
5.1 Classification of Crude Drugs 139
5.1.1 Alphabetical Classification 140
5.1.2 Morphological Classification 141
5.1.3 Taxonomical Classification 142
5.1.4 Pharmacological Classification 144
5.1.5 Chemical Classification 150
5.1.6 Chemotaxonomic Classification 152
5.2 Classification of Modern or Allopathic Drugs 153
5.3 Nutraceuticals, Functional Food, and Cosmeceuticals 162
5.4 Proteins, Peptides, and Enzymes as Drugs 180
5.5 Pharmacological and Synergistic Activities of Herbal Products 183
References 185
6 Pharmacognostical Botany: Classification of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs), Botanical Taxonomy, Morphology, and Anatomy of Drug Plants 189
Abstract 189
6.1 Classification of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) 191
6.2 Botanical Classification or Taxonomy of MAPs and Their Families 193
6.2.1 Systems of Plant Classification: Artificial, Natural, and Phylogenetic 194
6.2.2 Plant Taxa: Species, Genus, Family, Order, Class, Subdivision, Division, and Kingdom 195
6.2.3 Taxonomic Divisions of the Plant Kingdom: Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Gymnospermophyta, and Magnoliophyta Pharmacognostical Importance the Taxonomic Groups
6.2.3.1 Thallophyta 199
6.2.3.2 Bryophyta 200
6.2.3.3 Pteridophyta 202
6.2.3.4 Gymnospermophyta 203
6.2.3.5 Magnoliophyta 205
6.2.3.6 Characteristics of Monocot and Dicot Group of Plants 206
6.3 Animal Phyla and Their Useful Products in Traditional Medicine 215
6.4 Structural Organization of Drug Plants 219
6.4.1 Morphological Structure 220
6.4.2 Anatomical Structure 221
6.4.3 Structural Organization of Plant Cell 222
6.4.4 Types of Cell Wall 223
6.4.4.1 Cellulosic Wall 223
6.4.4.2 Lignified Cell Wall 225
6.4.4.3 Cell Wall Containing Cutin, Suberin, and Waxes 225
6.4.4.4 Mucilaginous Wall 226
6.4.4.5 Callose Wall 226
6.4.4.6 Chitinous Wall 226
6.4.5 Plasma Membrane and Protoplasm 227
6.4.5.1 Plasma Membrane 227
6.4.5.2 Protoplasm 228
6.4.5.3 Cell Contents 230
6.4.5.4 Cell Reserves or Food Substances 230
6.4.5.5 Starch 232
6.4.5.6 Inulin, Sinistrin, and Triticin 233
6.4.5.7 Sucrose 234
6.4.5.8 Hemicellulose 234
6.4.5.9 Proteins 234
6.4.5.10 Fixed Oils and Fats 235
6.4.5.11 Waste Materials or Ergastic Substances 235
6.4.5.12 Solid Substances 235
6.4.5.13 Substances in Solution in the Cell Sap 238
6.4.6 Plant Tissues and Tissue Systems 239
6.4.6.1 Meristematic Tissue 240
6.4.6.2 Permanent Tissue 240
6.4.6.3 Simple Tissue 241
6.4.6.4 Importance of Phloem Anatomy in Pharmacognosy 246
6.4.7 Secretory Tissues and Cells 246
6.4.7.1 Glandular tissue 246
6.4.7.2 Laticiferous Tissue (Fig. 6.19) 247
6.5 Drugs from Whole Plant 248
6.5.1 Structure of Organized Drugs 249
6.5.2 Leaf Morphology 249
6.5.2.1 External Structure of a Leaf Bears the Following Parts 250
6.5.2.2 Simple and Compound Leaf 251
6.5.2.3 Leaf Shape 252
6.5.2.4 Incision of the Lamina 254
6.5.2.5 Leaf Arrangement on the Stem: Phyllotaxy and Fibonacci Sequence 254
6.5.3 Characteristics of the Petiole 262
6.5.3.1 Leaf Margins 263
6.5.3.2 Leaf Apex 264
6.5.3.3 Leaf Bases 264
6.5.3.4 Leaf Attachment 265
6.5.3.5 Leaf Surface 266
6.5.3.6 Leaf Persistency 266
6.5.3.7 Leaf Texture 266
6.5.3.8 Leaf Venation 266
6.5.3.9 Leaf Anatomy 268
6.5.3.10 Modification of Leaf Structure 269
6.5.3.11 Leaf as a Source of Drug Principles 272
6.5.4 Flower 273
6.5.4.1 Inflorescence 275
6.5.5 Fruit 276
6.5.5.1 Types of Fruit 277
6.5.6 Bark and wood 282
6.5.6.1 Morphology of Bark 283
6.5.6.2 Flat Barks 284
6.5.6.3 Fractures of Barks 285
6.5.6.4 Shape of Barks 285
6.5.6.5 External Characters 285
6.5.6.6 Wood 289
6.5.6.7 Drugs from Bark and Wood 290
6.5.7 Root 291
6.5.7.1 Internal Structure of Root 291
6.5.7.2 Root Drugs 292
6.5.8 Rhizome 294
6.5.8.1 Internal Structure of Rhizome 295
6.5.8.2 Drugs from Rhizome 296
6.5.8.3 Corm 297
6.5.8.4 Bulb 298
6.6 Unorganized Drugs 299
References 302
7 Pharmacopoeia and Herbal Monograph, the Aim and Use of WHO’s Herbal Monograph, WHO’s Guide Lines for Herbal Monograph, Pharmacognostical Research and Monographs of Organized, Unorganized Drugs and Drugs from Animal Sources 306
Abstract 306
7.1 Pharmacopoeia Herbal Monograph 307
7.2 The Aim and Use of WHO’s Herbal Monograph 308
7.3 WHO’s Guidelines for Herbal Monograph 311
7.4 Pharmacognostical Research and Development of Herbal Monograph in Different Countries 312
7.5 Monographs of Organized and Unorganized Drugs 313
7.6 Monographs of Organized Drugs 314
7.6.1 Herba Centellae 314
7.6.2 Folium Ocimi Sancti 321
7.6.3 Radix Rauwolfiae 329
7.6.4 Rhizoma Zingiberis 337
7.7 Monographs of Unorganized Drugs 346
7.8 Monographs of Some Drugs from Animal Sources 355
7.8.1 Hirudo medicinalis 355
7.8.2 Cantharides 358
7.8.3 Cod-Liver Oil 360
7.8.4 Honey 362
References 363
8 Fibers, Surgical Dressings, and Bandages of Natural Origin 365
Abstract 365
8.1 Natural Fibers 365
8.1.1 Plant Fibers 367
8.1.2 Animal Fibers 372
8.1.3 Mineral Fibers 374
8.2 Asbestos 374
8.2.1 Regenerated Fibers 374
8.2.2 Synthetic Fibers 376
8.3 Surgical Dressings 376
8.3.1 Hydrocolloid Dressing 378
8.3.2 Hydrogel Dressing 379
8.3.3 Alginate Dressing 379
8.3.4 Collagen Dressing 379
8.3.5 Composite Dressing 380
8.3.6 Standard Dressing of BPC 380
8.4 Bandage 382
8.4.1 Compression Bandage 386
8.4.2 Triangular Bandage 387
8.4.3 Figure-of-Eight Bandage 387
8.4.4 Tube Bandage 387
References 388
9 Cultivation of Herbal Drugs, Biotechnology, and In Vitro Production of Secondary Metabolites, High-Value Medicinal Plants, Herbal Wealth, and Herbal Trade 389
Abstract 389
9.1 Field-Level Cultivation of Medicinal Plants 390
9.1.1 WHO’s Guidelines on Good Agricultural and Collection Practices (GACPs) 392
9.1.2 Necessity, Benefits, and Limitations of Commercial Cultivation of Medicinal Plants 393
9.1.3 Factors Affecting of Cultivation of Medicinal Plants 397
9.1.4 Field-Level Commercial Cultivation of Medicinal Plants (e.g., Rauvolfia Serpentine, Cinna spp., Atrpa Belladonna, and Catharanthus Roseus) 398
9.2 Biotechnology and In Vitro Production of Secondary Metabolites 413
9.2.1 Principles of Biotechnology and Laboratory Techniques 414
9.2.2 In Vitro Production of Secondary Metabolites 423
9.2.3 Industrial Application 434
9.2.3.1 Commercial Production of Shikonin 434
9.2.3.2 Biotransformation of Drug Precursors 434
9.2.4 Animal Tissue Culture 436
9.2.5 Animal Products in Therapeutic Use 440
9.2.6 Fermentation and Production of Microbial Primary and Secondary Metabolites 441
9.2.6.1 Primary Metabolites 443
9.2.6.2 Secondary Metabolites 443
9.3 Some High-Value Medicinal Plants Including Spices, Beverage, Aromatic Plants 444
9.4 Trade of Herbal Drugs 446
9.5 Herbal Wealth and Its Role in National Economy 448
9.5.1 Conservation Concepts and Management of Botanical Resources 457
References 458
10 Herbal Drugs: Their Collection, Preservation, and Preparation Evaluation, Quality Control, and Standardization of Herbal Drugs
Abstract 463
10.1 Herbal Drugs, Their Collection and Preservation 465
10.2 Methods of Preparation of Herbal Remedies 472
10.3 Evaluation, Quality Control and Standardization of Herbal Drugs 488
10.3.1 Organoleptic Evaluation 491
10.3.2 Microscopic Evaluation 491
10.3.3 Physical Evaluation 492
10.3.4 Chemical Evaluation 492
10.3.5 Analytical Evaluation 492
10.3.6 Biological Evaluation 493
10.3.7 Determination of Foreign 494
10.3.8 Determination of Ash Content 494
10.3.9 Determination of Heavy Metal Contamination 494
10.3.10 Determination of Microbial Contaminants and Aflatoxins 495
10.4 Guidelines for Assessing Quality of Herbal Drugs with Reference to Contaminants and Residues (WHO 2007) 495
10.5 Adulteration of Crude Drugs 502
References 505
11 Microscopy in Pharmacognosy 506
Abstract 506
11.1 Construction and Working Principles of Compound Microscopes 508
11.2 Morphological and Anatomical Examination of Crude Drugs 513
11.3 Physical Constants: Techniques and Microscopic Measurement 516
11.4 Microscopic Authentication and Quality Assessment of Herbal Drugs 521
References 522
12 Intellectual Property (IP) and Intellectual Property Right (IPR), Traditional Knowledge (TK) and Protection of Traditional Medical Knowledge (TMK) 523
Abstract 523
12.1 Intellectual Property (IP) and Intellectual Property Right (IPR) 524
12.1.1 Intellectual Property (IP) 524
12.1.2 Intellectual Property Right (IPR) 525
12.2 Types of Intellectual Property Right (IPRs) 525
12.2.1 Patent 525
12.2.2 Trademarks 526
12.2.3 Copyrights and Related Rights 526
12.2.4 Geographical Indications (GI) 526
12.2.5 Industrial Designs 527
12.2.6 Trade Secrets 527
12.2.7 Layout Design for Integrated Circuits 527
12.2.8 Protection of New Plant Variety 528
12.3 Traditional Knowledge (TK), Traditional Medical Knowledge (TMK), Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge Digital Library and Protection of Traditional Medical Knowledge 528
12.3.1 Traditional Knowledge (TK) 528
12.3.2 Traditional Medical Knowledge (TMK) 530
12.3.3 Genetic Resources (GRs) 530
12.3.4 Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) 531
12.3.5 Protection of Traditional Medical Knowledge 532
12.4 Traditional Medicine, Herbal Products and IPRs 533
12.4.1 Traditional Medical Knowledge in International Health and IP Policy 534
References 535
Index 537