Smart Polymer Nanocomposites (eBook)

Dr. Deepalekshmi Ponnamma is a post-doctoral fellow at the Center for Advanced Materials Qatar University. She received her doctoral degree from the Deakin University, Australia. Her research in the field of polymer nanocomposites (among other topics) has been published in international journals and book contributions, and has been awarded at several international conferences with best poster and oral presentation awards. Deepalekshmi Ponnamma already is experienced book editor.Dr. Kishor Kumar Sadasivuni is a post-doctoral researcher at the Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Qatar University. He has previously worked at the Inha University, South Korea, University of South Brittany, France and Mahatma Gandhi University, India. He has been involved in the publication of several papers in international journals and of book chapters and has already coedited several books in the fields of polymers, elastomers and composites. He serves as a guest editor in Sensors & Transducers journal and a lead guest editor in International Journal of Materials Science and Applications.Dr. John-John Cabibihan is an Associate Professor at the Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Qatar University. He is Associate Editor of the International Journal of Social Robotics; and the Chair of the IEEE. He received his Ph.D. in Biomedical Robotics from the Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Pisa, Italy in 2007. Prof. Mariam Al-Maadeed is the Director of the Center for Advanced Materials, Qatar University. She has received the Physics State Award 2010/ 2011 and the Gulf Petrochemical Association (GPCA) Plastic Excllence Award in 2014. She received her PhD from Alexandria Univ., Egypt in 2001.

Contents 6
Contributors 8
1 Energy Harvesting: Breakthrough Technologies Through Polymer Composites 13
Abstract 13
1 Introduction 14
1.1 Energy Harvesting for Alternatives to Fossil Fuel 14
1.2 Energy Harvesting for Powering Sensors and Electronics 15
2 Photovoltaic Technologies 18
2.1 Role of Nanostructured Materials and Conducting Polymers in Various PV Technologies 18
2.1.1 Organic Polymer Solar Cells 18
Device Physics and Active Layers Involved in Energy Conversion 18
Device Physics and Active Layers Involved in Energy Conversion 18
BJH OPV Cells: Focus on (Poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT)) and MDMO-PPV (Poly[2-methoxy-5-(3,7-dimethyloctyloxy)-1,4-phenylene]-alt-(vinylene)) Polymer Composites in OPVs 18
2.2 The Bigger Picture: Maximizing Cell and Module Efficiency Through Inorganic-Organic Hybrid Structures 24
2.2.1 Charge Separation at the Organic–Inorganic Interface 25
2.2.2 Nanostructured Architecture of Hybrid Cells 26
2.2.3 Key Components and Optimization for Enhanced Device Performance 27
3 Thermoelectric Power Generation 28
3.1 The Physics of a Working Thermoelectric Energy Harvester 28
3.2 Historical Implementation of Inorganic Materials: Evolution, Challenges Faced, and Limitations 31
3.3 Applications of Various Conductive Polymers for Organic Active Layers 31
3.3.1 Ease of Manufacturability 31
3.3.2 Tunability: Effect of Doping Level on the Thermoelectric Properties of Conductive Polymers 32
Copolymers and Polymer Blends: Further Methods to Tune Properties 33
Ability to Utilize Additives and Their Respective Advantages 33
4 Mechanical Vibration-Based Energy Harvesting 34
4.1 Electromagnetic Energy Harvesters 35
4.1.1 Operating Principle and Challenges in Miniaturization of Device 35
4.1.2 Fabrication Using Polymer Nanocomposites 36
Fabrication Methodologies 36
Geometry of Harvesters 37
Working Principles Behind Energy Capture 37
4.1.3 Challenges and Work Underway 37
4.2 Piezoelectric Energy Harvesters 38
4.2.1 Operating Principal Utilizing Two Categories of Piezogenerators 38
Single-Phase Piezoceramics 38
Piezocomposites 39
Piezopolymers 39
Voided Charge Polymers 40
4.2.2 Comparison and Advantage of Piezoelectric Polymers Over Inorganic Piezoelectric Materials 41
4.2.3 Conclusions, Challenges, and Future Outlook 42
References 43
2 Energy Harvesting from Crystalline and Conductive Polymer Composites 55
Abstract 55
1 Introduction 56
2 Electroactive Polymers (EAPs) 57
3 Energy Harvesting from Ferroelectric Polymers 59
3.1 Electromechanical Properties of PVDF 60
3.2 Energy Harvesting Using PVDF 64
3.2.1 Kinetic Energy Harvesters Using PVDF 64
3.2.2 Kinematic Energy Harvesters Using PVDF 69
3.2.3 Micro- and Nanogenerators Based on PVDF Composites 70
3.3 Energy Harvesting Using Cellulose Nanocrystals 71
4 Energy Harvesting from Electrostrictive Polymers 73
4.1 Effect of Intrinsic Mechanisms 74
4.2 Tackling Quadratic Dependence of Strain on Electric Field 75
4.3 Energy Harvesting Using Polyurethane Transducers 76
5 Comparison of Electromechanical Coupling in Various Dielectric EAPs 80
6 Energy Harvesting from Conductive Polymer Composites 81
6.1 Thermoelectric Energy Harvesters with Carbon Nanotube Electrodes 82
7 Summary 84
References 85
3 Ceramic-Based Polymer Nanocomposites as Piezoelectric Materials 88
Abstract 88
1 Introduction 89
2 Synthesis of Ceramic Particles and Their Polymer Composites 90
3 Piezoelectric Energy from Ceramic Nanocomposites 93
3.1 Ceramic Composites of Semicrystalline and Crystalline Polymers 93
3.2 Ceramic Composites of Amorphous Polymers 99
3.3 Miscellaneous 100
4 Conclusion 101
Acknowledgment 101
References 102
4 Poly(3-Hexylthiophene) (P3HT), Poly(Gamma-Benzyl-l-Glutamate) (PBLG) and Poly(Methyl Methacrylate) (PMMA) as Energy Harvesting Materials 105
Abstract 105
1 Regioregular Poly(3-Hexylthiophene-2,5-Diyl) (P3HT) 106
1.1 P3HT-Based Thin-Film Devices 107
1.2 P3HT in Solar Cells 108
1.2.1 Effect of Molecular Weight and Ratio 110
1.2.2 Effect of Solvent 111
1.2.3 Effect of Annealing 112
1.2.4 Effect of Active Layer Modification 113
1.2.5 Effect of Quantum Dots (QDs) 114
2 Poly(Gamma-Benzyl-l-Glutamate) (PBLG) 115
2.1 Poly(Glutamate)s or Poly(?-Amino Acid)s 115
2.2 Energy Harvesting Applications of PBLG 116
2.3 Fabrication of PBLG with Piezoelectric Properties 117
2.4 Characterization of PBLG Films 118
3 Poly(Methyl Methacrylate) (PMMA) 119
3.1 Synthesis of PMMA 119
3.2 Applications of PMMA in Energy Devices 119
3.2.1 Acoustic Energy Harvesting 119
3.2.2 Nanogenerator 120
3.2.3 Other Energy Harvesting Applications of PMMA 121
4 Conclusion 122
Acknowledgments 122
References 122
5 Self-healing Polymer Composites Based on Graphene and Carbon Nanotubes 129
Abstract 129
1 Fundamentals and Basic Concept of Self-healing 130
1.1 Background 130
1.2 Assessing the Self-healing Behavior 131
1.3 Different Mechanisms of Self-healing 132
1.3.1 Capsule Mechanism 132
1.3.2 Vascular Mechanism 133
1.3.3 Intrinsic Mechanism 133
2 Carbon Nanotubes and Graphene: A Brief Idea 134
3 Graphene-Based Self-healing Polymer Composites 136
3.1 Intrinsic Defect Healing using Graphene 136
3.2 Polyurethane–Graphene Self-healing Systems 137
3.3 Epoxy–Graphene Healable Composites 140
3.4 Graphene-Based Healable Composites with Other Polymers 142
3.5 Graphene-Based Healable Hydrogel Composites 142
4 Carbon Nanotube-Based Self-healing Polymer Nanocomposites 144
4.1 CNTs in Extrinsic Self-healing Polymers 147
4.1.1 CNTs as Nanoreservoirs 147
4.1.2 CNTs as Reinforcing Filler in Capsule-Based Healable Polymers 148
4.1.3 CNTs as Efficient Healing Agents 148
4.2 CNTs in Intrinsic Self-healing Polymer Composites 149
4.2.1 Multifunctional Healable Conductive Polymer Composites 149
4.2.2 Shear Stiffening Self-healing Polymer Composites 151
4.2.3 Damage-Free Transparent Electronics 152
4.2.4 Supramolecular Healable Hydrogels 153
4.2.5 Healable Superhydrophobic Surfaces 154
4.2.6 Self-healing Syntactic Foam 154
5 Conclusion and Future Scope 156
References 157
6 Self-healed Materials from Thermoplastic Polymer Composites 163
Abstract 163
1 Introduction 164
2 Role of Polymer Architecture on Self-healing of Polymers/Polymer Composites 166
3 Healing Mechanisms 167
3.1 Autonomic and Non-autonomic Way 167
3.2 Intrinsic/Extrinsic Approach 168
4 Self-healing—Concepts, Controlling Factors, and Performance 171
5 Self-healing Approach in Selected Thermoplastic Polymer Composites 173
5.1 Poly(Methyl Methacrylate)–Glycidyl Methacrylate Composites (Through ATRP) Based 173
5.2 Poly(Methyl Methacrylate)–Glycidyl Methacrylate Composites (Through RAFT) Based 177
5.3 Polystyrene–Glycidyl Methacrylate Composites Based 180
5.4 Chitosan–Cerium Nitrate Composite Based 182
5.5 Polyurethane–Graphene Composite Based 184
6 Challenges and Future Trends 187
7 Conclusion 188
References 189
7 Molecular Design Approaches to Self-healing Materials from Polymer and its Nanocomposites 191
Abstract 191
1 Introduction 192
2 Classifications 192
2.1 Autonomic and Non-autonomic Self-healing Systems 192
2.2 Extrinsic and Intrinsic Self-healing Systems 193
2.3 Dynamic Polymer and Polymer Composite-Based Self-healing Systems 194
3 Designing Strategies for Self-healing Based on Interaction 195
3.1 Self-healing via Non-covalent Interactions 195
3.1.1 Hydrogen Bonding Interactions 195
3.1.2 Host–Guest Chemistry 196
3.2 Self-healing via Covalent Interactions 198
3.2.1 Thermosetting Polymers 198
3.2.2 Thermoplastic Polymers 199
3.2.3 Metallopolymer 202
3.3 Self-healing via Dynamic Covalent Chemistry 203
3.3.1 Diels–Alder Reaction 204
3.3.2 Thiol–Disulfide Chemistry 205
3.3.3 Acylhydrazone Chemistry 207
3.3.4 Photodimerization 209
4 Polymer Nanocomposites 210
4.1 Polymer Nanocomposites from Nanoparticles 211
4.2 Polymer Nanocomposites from Carbon Nanotubes 212
4.3 Polymer Nanocomposites from Graphene 213
4.4 Polymer Nanocomposites from Nanoclays 215
5 Applications 216
5.1 Protective Coating 216
5.2 Shape Memory Polymers (SMPs) 218
5.3 Adhesion Application 219
5.4 Self-healing Hydrogel 221
6 Discussion and Future Perspectives 223
References 225
8 Self-healed Materials from Elastomeric Composites: Concepts, Strategies and Developments 229
Abstract 229
1 Physics of Polymers and Elastomers 230
2 Genesis and Mechanisms of Self-healing 232
2.1 Passive (Built-in Damage Prevention) 235
2.2 Active (Autonomous or Self-repair) 235
3 Designing Strategies for Healing Capacity 236
3.1 Release of Healing Agents 236
3.1.1 Microcapsule Embedment 237
3.1.2 Capsule–Catalyst System 237
Multicapsule System 238
Hollow Fibre Embedment 238
3.1.3 Reversible Cross-links 242
3.2 Supramolecular Polymers 243
4 Applications 245
4.1 Civil Construction 246
4.2 Swelling Elastomer in Oil and Gas Industry 246
4.3 Car Painting 247
4.4 Aerospace 247
4.5 Military 248
4.6 Medical Dental/Artificial Body Replacements 249
5 Conclusion: Towards a New Generation of Self-healing Systems 249
References 250
9 Nanocomposites for Extrinsic Self-healing Polymer Materials 253
Abstract 253
1 Introduction 255
2 Extrinsic Self-healing Materials 255
2.1 Background 255
2.2 Capsule-Based Self-healing Composites 258
2.2.1 Healing Agent 258
2.2.2 Fabrication Techniques 259
2.3 Vessel-Based Self-healing Composites 262
2.3.1 Healing Agent 262
2.3.2 Fabrication Techniques 262
Hollow Fibres 263
Sacrificial Fibres/Scaffolds 264
3 The Role of Nanocomposites in Extrinsic Self-healing Materials 269
3.1 Nanocomposites as Healing Agent Carriers 269
3.1.1 Nanotubes 270
3.1.2 Nanocapsules 271
In Situ Polymerisation 271
Miniemulsion Polymerisation 271
Interfacial Polymerisation 274
3.2 Nanocomposites as Additives to Improve the Properties of Healing Agents 274
3.3 Nanocomposites as Additives to Activate or Improve Chemical Reactions in Curing Processes 276
3.4 Nanocomposites Used in the Fabrication of Capsules or Vessels 278
3.4.1 Fabrication of Capsules 278
3.4.2 Fabrication of Vessels 279
4 Challenges and Future Works 282
5 Conclusion 284
References 285
10 A Brief Overview of Shape Memory Effect in Thermoplastic Polymers 290
Abstract 290
1 Introduction 291
2 Shape Memory Effect in Polymers 292
3 Shape Memory Mechanism in SMPs 293
4 Physically CrossLinked Thermoplastics (or Physically CrossLinked Glassy Copolymers) 295
5 Physically CrossLinked Semicrystalline Block Copolymers as Shape Memory Polymers 297
6 Synthesis of Thermoplastic Shape Memory Polymers 298
6.1 Profile Extrusion 298
6.2 Fiber Spinning 299
6.3 Film Casting 299
7 Recent Advancements in Thermoplastic SMPs and Composites 300
7.1 Thermoplastic SMPs 300
7.2 Thermoplastic Shape Memory Composites and Blends 301
8 Applications of Thermoplastic SMPs 303
8.1 Thermoplastic Polyurethanes (TPUs) 303
8.2 Poly(?-Caprolactone) (PCL) 304
8.3 Nylon 12 305
9 Conclusion 305
References 305
11 Shape Memory Materials from Epoxy Matrix Composites 311
Abstract 311
1 Introduction 312
1.1 What Are SMP Materials? 312
2 SMC from Epoxy Matrix 314
2.1 Shape Memory Composite with a Bulk SMP Interlayer 314
2.1.1 Examples of SMPC 315
2.1.2 Monitoring of the Shape Recovery 319
2.1.3 Multilayered SMPC 320
2.1.4 Shape Recovery by Irradiation 321
2.2 Shape Memory Composite Sandwiches with a SMP Core 322
3 Perspective for the Field 326
4 Conclusion 326
Acknowledgements 327
References 327
12 Shape Memory Behavior of Conducting Polymer Nanocomposites 329
Abstract 329
1 Introduction 330
2 Basics of Shape Memory 331
3 Synthesis Methods 334
3.1 Conducting Polymers 334
3.2 Nanoparticles and Polymer Nanocomposites 335
4 Shape Memory Effects in Conducting Polymer Composites 337
4.1 Conducting Polymers and Its Composites 337
4.2 Conducting Fillers in Shape Memory 338
4.3 Electroactive Shape Memory 342
5 Conclusion 347
Acknowledgment 347
References 347
13 Functional Nanomaterials for Transparent Electrodes 352
Abstract 352
1 Introduction 354
2 Functional Materials 355
3 Metal Wire-Based Transparent Conductive Films 356
3.1 Synthesis of Copper Nanowires (CuNWs) 356
3.2 Fabrication of Cu NW Thin Films 356
3.3 Applications of CuNWs 358
3.4 Synthesis of Ag NWs 359
3.5 Preparation of Ag NWs Thin Films 360
3.6 Optoelectrical Properties of AgNWs 360
4 Carbon Nanotube-Based Transparent Conductive Films 363
4.1 Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube 363
4.2 Basic Principle and Preparation of SWCNT Dispersion 364
4.3 Fabrication and Characterization of SWCNT TCFs 365
5 Graphene-Based Transparent Conductive Films 367
5.1 Industrial Production of Graphene Synthesis by Roll-to-Roll CVD Method 368
5.1.1 Roll-to-Roll Large-Area Graphene Growth 368
5.1.2 Roll-to-Roll Lamination and Delamination for Graphene Transfer 368
5.2 Optoelectronic Properties 368
5.3 Applications of Graphene as Transparent Conductive Electrodes 369
5.3.1 Touch Screen 369
5.3.2 Liquid Crystal Displays 371
5.3.3 Solar Cells 372
5.3.4 Triboelectric Nanogenerator 373
6 Conclusion 376
References 377
14 Biodegradable Nanocomposites for Energy Harvesting, Self-healing, and Shape Memory 384
Abstract 384
1 Introduction 385
2 Biodegradable Composites for Energy Harvesting 387
3 Biodegradable Composites for Self-healing 392
4 Biodegradable Composites for Shape Memory 393
5 Limitations, Challenges, and Conclusions 399
Acknowledgments 400
References 400