The Benefits of Natural Products for Neurodegenerative Diseases (eBook)

Preface 5
Acknowledgments 6
Contents 7
Editors Short Biography 9
Epigenetic Modifications in Neurological Diseases: Natural Products as Epigenetic Modulators a Treatment Strategy 11
Introduction 12
DNA Methylation 13
DNA Methyl Transferases 13
DNA Demethylation 14
Histone Code Modifications 15
Histone Acetylation and Deacetylation 15
Histone Methylation and Demethylation 16
Epigenetic Dysregulation in Neurological Diseases 16
Schizophrenia 19
Alzheimer’s Disease 20
Parkinson’s Disease 21
Epilepsy 21
Epigenetic Modulatory Drugs to Treat Neurological Diseases 22
Natural Products as Epigenetic Modulators in Neurological Diseases 23
Phytochemicals 23
Dietary Factors as Modulators of HDAC Activity 24
Genistein 25
Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) 26
Lycopene 26
Resveratrol 27
Curcumin 28
Anacardic Acid 28
Garcinol 28
Plumbagin 29
Conclusion 30
References 30
Effect of Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) on Spinal Cord Injury 36
Introduction 36
The Spinal Cord 37
Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) 37
What Is Spinal Cord Injury (SCI)? 37
Treatments Currently Available 39
Ongoing Research with SCI 40
Omega-3 Fatty Acids 41
Why Are Omega-3 Fatty Acids So Important? 42
Role of DHA, an Omega-3 Fatty Acid in Treating SCI 43
Mechanism of Action of DHA 44
Sources of DHA 45
Commercially Available DHA 45
Conclusion 45
References 47
Dietary Polyphenols as Potential Remedy for Dementia 49
Oxidative Stress 51
Direct Scavenging 52
Metal Ion Chelation 53
Regulation of Antioxidant Enzymes 53
Excitotoxicity 53
Inflammation 54
Curcumin 55
Catechins 57
Caveats and Considerations 59
References 60
Spices: Potential Therapeutics for Alzheimer’s Disease 65
Introduction 66
Allium sativum L. 68
Carum carvi L. 70
Crocus sativus L. 70
Curcuma longa L. 71
Capsicum annum L. var. angulosum 72
Cinnamomum cassia 72
Coriandrum sativum L. 72
Elettaria cardamomum L. 73
Ferula asafoetida L. 73
Foeniculum vulgare Mill 74
Murraya koenigii L. 74
Myristica fragrans Houtt. Nutmeg 74
Piper nigrum L. 75
Pimpinella anisum L. 75
Rosmarinus officinalis L. 75
Salvia officinalis L. 75
Syzygium aromaticum L. 76
Trigonella foenum graecum L. 76
Zingiber officinale R. 76
Toxicity of Indian Spices 77
Modern Medicines from Spices and Scope of Lead Finding in AD 78
Conclusion 78
References 81
Application of Bioactive Compounds from Scutellaria in Neurologic Disorders 87
Introduction 88
Mechanism of Oxidative Stress-Induced Inflammation 89
Inflammation and Neurodegeneration 90
Traditional Medicines for Inflammation 92
Background of Scutellaria 92
Therapeutic Benefits of Crude Scutellaria Extracts 93
Wogonin 94
Baicalin 95
Scutellarin 96
Oroxylin A 96
Neuroprotection (Cell Death Prevention) Versus Anticancer (Cell Death Induction) Activities of Scutellaria Extracts 97
Conclusion 99
References 99
Alzheimer’s Disease and Medicinal Plants: An Overview 103
Introduction 103
Epidemiology of Alzheimer’s Disease 104
Risk Factors of Alzheimer’s Disease 104
Symptoms of Alzheimer’s Disease 105
Clinical Features of Alzheimer’s Disease 106
Staging of Alzheimer’s Disease 106
Treatment 106
Medicinal Plants and Alzheimer’s Disease 107
Conclusion 110
References 110
Efficacy of Natural Compounds in Neurodegenerative Disorders 114
Introduction 115
Herbals in Brain Health 116
Role in Alzheimer’s Disease 118
Effect on Various Diagnostic Features of Alzheimer’s Disease 118
Implication on Amyloid Beta (A?) Induced Neurological Changes 119
Role in Parkinson’s Disease 121
Role in Ischemia/Stroke 123
Conclusions and Future Directions 124
References 125
Impact of Non-Enzymatic Glycation in Neurodegenerative Diseases: Role of Natural Products in Prevention 131
Introduction 131
Glycation (Non-Enzymatic Glycosylation) 132
Glycation Complications in Diseases 132
Glycation and Diabetic Problems 134
Glycation Complications in Diabetic Retinopathy 134
Glycation in Diabetic Cataract 134
Glycation in Diabetic Neuropathy 135
Advanced Glycation in Atherosclerosis 135
Role of Glycation in Ageing 136
Glycation in Neurodegenerative Diseases 139
Parkinson’s Disease 139
?-Synuclein Aggregation and Cell Death 140
Alzheimer's Disease 141
AGEs in Alzheimer's Disease 142
Role of Natural Products in the Prevention of Neurodegenerative Diseases 143
Polyphenols 144
Conclusion 149
References 150
Role of Plant Polyphenols in Alzheimer’s Disease 158
Neurodegenerative Diseases 159
Alzheimer’s Disease 159
Epidemiology 160
Pathology 160
Models of AD 161
Genetics 162
Early Onset of Familial Alzheimer’s Disease (FAD) 162
Late-Onset alzheimer’s Disease 162
Treatment 163
Polyphenols 163
Classifications and Dietary Sources of Polyphenols 164
Polyphenols and Neurodegenerative Diseases 164
Factors Known to Involve in Etiology, Progression, and Pathology of AD 164
Aging 166
Cholinergic Hypothesis 166
Polyphenols and Protective Effects Against NMDA Neurotoxicity 167
Polyphenols and Amyloidopathies 168
Theories Based on Environmental Factors 168
Aluminum 168
Head Injury 169
Diet and Malnutrition 170
Theories Based on Mitochondrial Dysfunction 170
Theories Based on Genetics 172
APP 172
PSEN Genes 172
Apo E 173
Barriers to Be Crossed 173
Conclusion 175
References 175
Cannabinoids: Glutamatergic Transmission and Kynurenines 177
Introduction 178
Endocannabinoid System (ECS) 178
Cannabinoid Receptors 178
CB1 Receptor 179
CB2 Receptor 180
TRPV1 Receptor 180
GPR55 Receptor 180
Endocannabinoids 181
Anandamide (AEA) 181
Biosynthesis 181
Physiological Effects 181
2-Arachidonoyl Glycerol (2-AG) 183
Biosynthesis 183
Cannabinoids are Retrograde Messengers 183
Modulation of Glycine Receptors 183
Cannabinoids and Glutamatergic Synapses 184
Neuroprotective Role of Cannabinoids 184
The ECS and Huntington’s Disease 185
The Kynurenine Pathway 185
Quinolinic Acid (QUIN) Synthesis 187
Toxic Mechanisms of QUIN 187
Physiological Importance of KP 188
Role of KP in Neurodegenerative Diseases 189
The KP and the Endocannabinoid System: Demonstrated and Possible Interactions 190
Kynurenic Acid (KYNA) and Cannabinoids 190
Quinolinic Acid (QUIN) and Cannabinoids 192
Concluding Remarks 195
References 196
Carotenoids and Neurobiological Health 203
Introduction 203
Chemical Structure and Nomenclature 204
Dietary Sources 205
Green Fruits and Vegetables 206
Red, Orange, and Yellow Fruits and Vegetables 208
Absorption and Bioavailability 208
Entry and Distribution of Carotenoids in the Central Nervous System 209
Transport Systems 209
Brain Distribution 211
Mechanisms of Action 211
Antioxidant Activity 212
Singlet Oxygen Quenching 212
Free Radical Scavenging 213
Mitochondrial Localization 213
Modulation of Enzymes with Pro/Antioxidant Function 214
Potential Pro-oxidant Effects 214
Anti-inflammatory Effects 215
Hypocholesterolemic Effects 218
Carotenoids in Neurodegenerative Disease 219
Mild Cognitive Impairment 219
Alzheimer’s Disease 220
Parkinson’s Disease 222
Conclusion 223
References 224
Role of Quercetin Benefits in Neurodegeneration 233
Introduction 234
Flavonoids: An Overview 234
Quercetin 238
Dietary Sources 238
Metabolism and Bioavailability 239
Quercetin and Neuroprotection 240
A General View on Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory Properties of Quercetin 240
Role of Quercetin in Ameliorating Neurodegenerative Disorders 242
Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) 242
Parkinson’s Disease (PD) 243
Huntington’s Disease (HD) 244
Quercetin on Spinal Cord Injury, Brain Trauma, and Cerebral Ischemia 245
Conclusion 246
References 246
Role of Omega-3 PUFAs in Neurobiological Health 250
Introduction 251
The Chemistry of Omega-3 PUFAs 252
Oxidisability of Omega-3 PUFAs 252
Sources of Omega-3 PUFAs 253
Broad Role of Omega-3 PUFAs in Systemic Inflammatory Diseases 255
General Mechanisms of Action 256
Omega-3 PUFAs and the Central Nervous System (CNS) 257
Omega-3 and Brain Development 257
Neurological Disorders Associated with Altered Omega-3 Levels 260
Depression 260
Anxiety 261
ADHD 262
Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) 263
Neurodegenerative (Alzheimer’s Disease) 264
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) 266
Maintenance of Omega-3 Levels in the CNS 267
ALA to DHA Synthesis Within the CNS 267
BBB Transport from Systemic Circulation 268
Ideal Omega-3 Levels in the Peripheral Body and CNS 269
Cautions Regarding Omega-3 Supplementation 270
Conclusion 270
References 271
Neuroprotective Activities of Saffron and Crocin 278
Introduction 279
Preparation of Monoclonal Antibody (MAb) Against Crocin and Confirmation for Incorporation of Crocin into PC-12 Cells by Immunostaining 283
Neuroprotective Activity of Crocin In Vitro 285
Antioxidant Activity of Crocin in Preventing Neuronal Cell Death 285
Inhibitory Activity of Crocin for PC-12 Cell Death Induced by Serum/Glucose Deprivation 286
Inhibitory Effect of Crocin on the Activation of N-SMase Induced in Serum/Glucose-Deprived PC-12 Cells 287
Increase of Intracellular GSH Levels in Serum/Glucose-­Deprived PC-12 Cells Through Activation of GR and c-GCS by Crocin 288
Neuroprotective Activity of Crocin In Vivo 289
Inhibitory Activity of Crocin for Infarcted Areas Caused by Occlusion of the Middle Cerebral Artery in Mice Brain 289
Learning and Memory by Saffron Extract and Crocin 290
Effect of Saffron and Crocin on LTP 290
Sleep-Promoting Effect of Crocin 290
Conclusion 292
References 293
The Advances in Neurobiology 296
Introduction 296
Key Treatments Available for Neurodegenerative Diseases 297
Epigenetics and Neurodisorders 297
Drawbacks of Neurological Drugs 298
Neuroprotective Medicine from Natural Source 298
Role of Berries 299
Active Compounds in Berries 299
Tomato 300
Gooseberry 300
Grapes 301
Berberry 302
Strawberry 302
Blackberry 303
Raspberry 303
Apples 304
Goji Berry 304
Conclusion 305
References 306
Brain Food at High Altitude 310
High Altitude 310
Hypobaric Hypoxia: Condition Explicit to High Altitude 312
Consequences of Hypobaric Hypoxia Exposure 313
Memory at High Altitude 314
Nutraceuticals for Cognition at High Altitude 316
Withania somnifera 316
Bacopa monnieri 316
Physostigmine (PHY) 317
Galantamine (GAL) 318
Emblica officinalis (Amla) 318
Conclusion and Future Prospects 319
References 319
Indian Herbs for the Treatment of Neurodegenerative Disease 325
Ayurveda: The Indian System of Medicine 325
Neurodegenerative Disorders 326
The Ayurvedic Way of Treating Neurodegenerative Diseases 327
Withania somnifera 328
Bacopa monnieri 329
Centella asiatica 331
Mucuna pruriens 333
Other Important Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants on Neuroprotection 335
References 335
Avocado as a Major Dietary Source of Antioxidants and Its Preventive Role in Neurodegenerative Diseases 339
Introduction 339
Process of Neurodegeneration 341
Oxidative Stress and Neurodegenerative Diseases 342
Avocado as a Potential Source of Antioxidants 343
Diabetes-Related Neurodegeneration and Avocado 346
Neuroprotection 347
Important Phytochemicals of Avocado and the CNS 348
Role of Fatty Acids in Brain Function 348
DNA Damage Protection 349
Other Phytochemicals of Avocados and Their Role 349
Folate and Neural Tube Defects (NTDs) 350
Folate and Lowered Risk of Depression 350
Folate in Dementia, Cognitive Function, and Alzheimer’s Disease 350
Avocado and Brain Function 351
Vitamin K and Stroke 351
Avocado and Absorption of Brain Health Nutrients 352
Conclusion 353
References 353
Detoxification of Carbonyl Compounds by Carbonyl Reductase in Neurodegeneration 357
Introduction 358
CBR1 Metabolism of Xenobiotic Carbonyls and Quinones 358
Role of CBR1 in Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis 360
Reactive Aldehydes Derived from Lipid Peroxidation Are Downstream Effectors of Oxidative Stress 362
Detoxification of Reactive Aldehydes Occurs Through Carbonyl Reduction 362
Carbonyl Reductase Plays a Key Role in the Detoxification of Reactive Aldehydes Derived from Lipid Peroxidation 363
Transcriptional Regulation of CBR1 Is a Major Contributor to the Control of Oxidative Stress 365
Conclusion 365
References 366
Role of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Their Metabolites on Stem Cell Proliferation and Differentiation 368
Introduction 368
Effect of PUFAs on Stem Cell Proliferation 370
Effect of PUFAs on Stem Cell Differentiation 372
Effect of Synaptic Function of PUFAs 372
Role of PUFAs in Neurogenesis and Neuroprotection 374
Role of PUFAs in Inflammation in the Nervous System 375
Role of PUFAs in the Regulation of Brain Glucose Uptake 376
Conclusions and Future Directions 376
References 377
Choline and the Brain: An Epigenetic Perspective 382
Introduction 383
Physiological Functions of Choline: General Overview 384
Epigenetic Mechanisms of Choline Effects on the Brain 387
Choline and the Fetal Brain 387
Choline and the Aging Brain 390
Conclusion 393
References 394
Modulatory Effects of Dietary Amino Acids on Neurodegenerative Diseases 401
Introduction 401
The Role of Micronutrients in Neurological Diseases 403
Glutathione 403
Alpha-Lipoic Acid 403
B Vitamins 404
Carnitine 404
Choline 404
Copper 404
Inositol 404
Oleic Acid 405
Vitamin C 405
Vitamin E 405
Role of Important Amino Acids on Neurological Diseases 405
Serine 405
Glycine 405
Tryptophan and Tyrosine 406
Sources of Aromatic Amino Acids 407
Glutamate and Asparagine 408
Ketogenic Diet 408
Dietary Restriction 408
Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying the Neural Effects of Dietary Restriction 410
Conclusion 410
References 410
Plant-Derived Natural Products for Parkinson’s Disease Therapy 415
Introduction 416
An Overview of the Pathophysiology and Treatment of PD 417
Methodology 417
Animal and Cellular Models of PD 418
Plant-Derived Natural Products with Antiparkinsonian Potential 420
Ayurvedic Herbs 420
Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. (Family Leguminosae) 420
Hyoscyamus niger L. (Family Solanaceae) 424
Withania somnifera L. (Dunal) (Family Solanaceae) 425
Sida cordifolia L. (Family Malvaceae) 425
Nardostachys jatamansi DC. (Family Valerianaceae) 426
Centella asiatica L. (Family Apiaceae) 426
Bacopa monnieri L. (Family Plantaginaceae) 426
Stereospermum suaveolens DC (Family Bignoniaceae) 426
Tinospora cordifolia Willd. Miers (Family Menispermaceae) 427
Chinese Herbs 427
Bak Foong 427
Buddleia lindleyana Fort. (Family Verbenaceae) 433
Cistanche deserticola Y.C. Ma (Family Scrophulariaceae) 433
Cistanche salsa (C. A. Mey.) Beck (Family Scrophulariaceae) 434
Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis) P. Karst (Family Ganodermataceae) 434
Ginkgo biloba L. (Family Ginkgoaceae) 434
Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (Family Lamiaceae) 435
Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Family Lamiaceae) 436
Stephania intermedia H. S. Lo. (Family Menispermaceae) 437
Toki-to 437
Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F. (Family Celastraceae) 437
Tussilago farfara L. (Family Asteraceae) 438
Cassia tora L. (Family Caesalpiniaceae) 439
Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. Bark. (Family Eucommiaceae) 439
Gynostemma pentaphyllum Thunb. (Family Cucurbitaceae) 440
Plants Essentially Not Listed in Any Traditional Medical System 440
Acanthopanax senticosus Harms (Family Araliaceae) 440
Alpinia oxyphylla Miq. (Family Zingiberaceae) 451
Amburana cearensis (Allemao) A.C.Sm (Family Leguminosae) 451
Anemopaegma mirandum Mart ex. DC. (Family Bignoniaceae) 451
Banisteriopsis caapi (Spruce ex Griseb.) Morton (Family Malpighiaceae) 452
Buddleja officinalis Maxim. (Family Buddlejaceae) 452
Camellia sinensis Kuntze (Family Theaceae) 452
Cannabis sativa L. (Family Cannabaceae) 455
Chaenomeles speciosa Nakai (Family Rosaceae) 455
Coffea arabica L. (Family Rubiaceae) 455
Coffea sp. (Family Rubiaceae) 456
Curcuma longa L. (Family Zingiberaceae) 457
Delphinium denudatum Wall. (Family Ranunculaceae) 458
Fraxinus seiboldiana Blume (Family Oleaceae) 458
Hypericum perforatum L. (Family Clusiaceae) 458
Ilex paraguariensis A. St. Hil. (Family Aquifoliaceae) 459
Magonia glabrata St. Hill (Family Sapindaceae) 459
Morus sp. L. (Family Moraceae) 460
Myracrodruon urundeuva M. Allemao (Family Anacardiaceae) 460
Nicotiana tabacum L. (Family Solanaceae) 461
Paeonia lactiflora Pallas. and Paeonia veitchii Lynch. (Family Rananculaceae) 461
Plumbago scandens L. (Family Plumbaginaceae) 462
Polygonum multiflorum Thub. (Family Polygonaceae) 462
Psoralea corylifolia L. (Family Leguminosae) 462
Rehmannia glutinosa Libosch (Family Scrophulariaceae) 463
Rosmarinus officinalis L. (Family Lamiaceae) 463
Scutellaria lateriflora L. (Family Lamiaceae) 464
Solanum lycopersicum L. (Family Solanaceae) (Tomato) 464
Althaea officinalis L. (Family Malvaceae) 464
Toxicodendron vernicifluum (Stokes) F. A. Barkley formerly verniciflua Stokes (Family Anacardiaceae) 465
Valeriana officinalis L. & Maillefer (Family Valerianaceae)
Vicia faba L. (Family Fabaceae) 465
Crocus sativus L. (Family Iridaceae) 466
Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (Family Fabaceae) 466
Uncaria tomentosa Wild. (Family Rubiaceae) 466
Olea europaea L. (Family Oleaceae) 466
Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. (Family Myrtaceae) 467
Garcinia indica Choisy (Family Clusiaceae) 467
Acorus gramineus Sol. (Family Acoraceae) 467
Spirulina 467
Indigofera tictoria L. (Family Fabaceae) 468
Cinnamomum sp. 468
Selaginella delicatula Alston (Family Selaginellaceae) 468
Sesame Seed Oil 468
Rhus verniciflua Stokes (Family Anacardiaceae) 468
Hibiscus asper Hook. (Family Malvaceae) 469
Chrysanthemum indicum L. (Family Asteraceae) 469
Yeoldahanso-tang 469
Paullinia cupana L. (Family Sapindaceae) 469
Croton celtidifolius Baill. (Family Euphorbiaceae) 469
Pinus pinaster Aiton (Family Pinaceae) 470
Gastrodia elata Blume (Family Orchidaceae) 470
Thuja orientalis L. (Family Cupressaceae) 470
Some Major Active Molecules of Plant Origin 470
Flavonoids 470
Isoborneol 475
Hesperidin 475
Naringin 475
Silibinin 476
Anthocyanin and Proanthocyanin 476
n-Butylidenephthalide 476
6-Shogaol or 1-(4-hydroxy-methoxyphenyl)-4-decen-on 477
Danshensu (?-3,4-dihydroxyphenyl-lactic acid) 477
Gallic Acid 477
Acacetin 478
Tenuigenin 478
Nordihydroguaiaretic Acid 479
Bu-7 479
Kaempferol 479
Puerarin 480
Conclusions 480
References 481
ERRATUM 497