Natural Polymers (eBook)

Ololade Olatunji is a Lecturer at the University of Lagos in Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria.

Preface 5
Contents 8
1 Classification of Natural Polymers 10
1.1 Introduction 10
1.2 Polysaccharides 11
1.2.1 Cellulose 12
1.2.2 Hemicelluloses 13
1.2.3 Lignin 14
1.3 15
1.3.1 Starch (Amylose and Amylopectin) 16
1.3.2 Glycogen 16
1.3.3 Chitin 16
1.3.4 Hyaluronic Acid 17
1.3.5 Alginate 17
1.4 Proteins 18
1.4.1 Silk Fibroin 19
1.4.2 Silk Sericin 19
1.4.3 Zein 20
1.4.4 Wheat Gluten 20
1.4.5 Collagen 20
1.4.6 Gelatine 22
1.5 Polyester 22
1.5.1 Cutin 22
1.5.2 Suberin 22
1.5.3 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 23
1.6 Polynucleotides 23
1.7 Polyisoprenes 23
1.8 Conclusion 23
References 24
2 Processing and Characterization of Natural Polymers 27
2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Blends and Composites 28
2.2.1 Compatibilization 29
2.2.2 Blending of Natural Polymers with Synthetic Polymers 30
2.2.3 Natural Polymers as Matrix in Composites 34
2.2.4 Natural Polymers as Fillers and Reinforcements 35
2.3 Processing Techniques 37
2.3.1 Extrusion Molding 38
2.3.2 Injection Molding 39
2.3.3 Solvent Casting 40
2.3.4 Spin Coating 41
2.3.5 Self-assemble of Monolayers (SAM) 41
2.3.6 Natural Polymer Microneedles 42
2.3.7 Cellulose Nanoparticles 44
2.3.8 Electrospinning, Melt Spinning, and Wet Spinning 46
2.4 Characterization 48
2.4.1 Small-Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS) 49
2.4.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) 50
2.4.3 X-ray Diffraction 52
2.4.4 Thermogravimetry 54
2.4.5 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 55
2.4.6 Mechanical Characterization 56
2.4.7 Microscopy 59
2.4.8 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectrometry 60
2.5 Conclusion 64
References 64
3 Extraction, Purification, and Modification of Natural Polymers 70
3.1 Introduction 70
3.2 Extraction, Purification, and Modification of Gelatin 71
3.2.1 Primary Structure of Gelatin 71
3.2.2 Secondary Structure of Gelatin 72
3.2.3 Denaturation of Collagen to Obtain Gelatin 72
3.2.4 Extraction of Gelatin 73
3.2.5 Extraction of Fish Gelatin 74
3.2.6 Insects Gelatin 75
3.3 Extraction, Purification, and Modification of Chitin 77
3.4 Extraction, Purification, and Modification of Chitosan 79
3.4.1 Extraction and Isolation of Chitosan 79
3.5 Extraction, Purification, and Modification of Cellulose 82
3.5.1 Cellulose Extraction 82
3.5.2 Extraction of Alpha-Cellulose 83
3.5.3 Modification of Cellulose 85
3.6 Extraction, Purification, and Modification of Starch 85
3.6.1 Starch Methods of Extraction 85
3.6.2 Corn Starch Production 86
3.6.3 Starch Extraction from Masa 86
3.6.4 Potato Starch Production 89
3.6.5 Starch Extraction 89
3.6.6 Starch Milk Raffination 89
3.6.7 Dewatering of Refined Starch Milk and Starch Drying 89
3.6.8 Rice Starch Extraction 90
3.6.9 Modification of Starches 90
3.7 Extraction, Purification, and Modification of Pectin 91
3.7.1 Extraction and Isolation of Pectin 91
3.8 Extraction, Purification, and Modification of Lignin 92
3.8.1 Lignin Extraction with Ionic Liquids 93
3.9 Conclusion 95
References 95
4 Biomedical Application of Natural Polymers 99
4.1 Introduction 99
4.2 Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering 100
4.2.1 Hydrogel Scaffolds 101
4.2.2 Fibrous Scaffolds 102
4.2.3 Porous Scaffolds 104
4.2.4 Acellular Scaffolds 107
4.2.5 Gelatin-Based Scaffolds 107
4.2.6 Natural Polymers in Carbon Nanotube-Based Scaffolds 109
4.3 Wound Healing 110
4.4 Natural Polymer Implants 113
4.5 Conclusion 116
References 116
5 Application of Natural Polymers in Food 121
5.1 Introduction 121
5.2 Creation and Stabilization of Food Microstructures 123
5.2.1 Emulsifiers and Stabilizers 129
5.2.2 Thickeners 137
5.2.3 Gelling Agents 140
5.2.4 Characterization of Natural Polymer Formulations 144
5.3 Additional Physiological and Biological Functions 146
5.3.1 Health Effects of Natural Polymers 146
5.3.2 Effect of Natural Polymers in the Upper Intestine—Prolonging Satiety and Inducing Weight Loss 147
5.3.3 Effect of Natural Polymers on Blood Cholesterol Levels 150
5.3.4 Effect of Natural Polymers in the Lower Intestine 150
5.3.5 Natural Polymers Can Improve Bioavailability of Vitamins and Other Sensitive Components 151
5.3.6 Antioxidative and Antimicrobial Properties of Natural Polymers 153
5.4 Regulatory Aspects 154
5.5 Market Information 155
5.5.1 Modified Starch Market 158
5.5.2 Gelling Agents Market 158
5.5.3 Natural Emulsifiers Market 159
5.6 Future Outlook 159
References 161
6 Current Application and Challenges on Packaging Industry Based on Natural Polymer Blending 168
6.1 Introduction 168
6.2 Sources of Natural Polymers to Produce Packaging 169
6.2.1 Polysaccharides 169
6.2.1.1 Starch 170
6.2.1.2 Cellulose 171
6.2.1.3 Chitin and Chitosan 172
6.2.2 Proteins 173
6.2.2.1 Soya 173
6.2.2.2 Wheat Gluten 174
6.2.2.3 CollagenGelatine 175
6.3 Industries’ Techniques to Produce Packaging-Based Natural Polymers 176
6.3.1 Injection Molding 176
6.3.2 Blown Film Extrusion 179
6.3.3 Drawbacks in Industrial Techniques to Produce Packaging-Based Natural Polymers 181
6.4 Application of Natural Polymers Blending in Packaging Industries 182
6.4.1 Food Packaging 182
6.4.2 Pharmaceutical Industries 183
6.4.3 Plastics Packaging 184
6.5 Conclusion 185
References 186
7 Application of Natural Polymers in Engineering 190
7.1 Introduction 190
7.1.1 Role of Natural Polymers in Nonrenewable Energy (Drilling Muds) 190
7.1.1.1 Classification of Drilling Muds 191
7.1.1.2 Drilling Muds Properties 193
7.1.1.3 Drilling Problems 196
7.1.1.4 Lost Circulation Problem 196
7.1.1.5 The Classification of Drilling Muds According to Losses 197
7.1.1.6 Types of Loss Circulation Zones 197
7.1.1.7 Loss Circulation Treatment 198
7.1.1.8 Water-Soluble Natural Polymers as Lost Circulation Control Materials (LCM) 199
7.1.1.9 Water-Insoluble Natural Polymers as Lost Circulation Materials 203
7.1.1.10 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) for the Formed Internal Filter Cakes 206
7.1.2 Role of Natural Polymers in Renewable Energy (Biomass) 206
7.1.3 Types of Renewable Energy 208
7.1.3.1 Biomass 209
7.1.3.2 ElectricalHeat Energy 209
7.1.3.3 Transport Fuel (Biofuel) 209
7.1.3.4 Chemical Feedstock 211
7.1.3.5 Lignocellulosic Biomass 211
7.1.4 Other Applications of Natural Polymers in Engineering 213
7.1.4.1 Mechanism for Natural Bioflocculants 213
7.1.4.2 Chitosan 214
7.1.4.3 Tannin 215
7.1.4.4 Gums and Mucilage 216
7.1.4.5 Cellulose 216
7.2 Conclusion 217
References 218
8 Cosmetics and Personal Care Products 224
8.1 Introduction 224
8.2 Generalities 226
8.3 Functions of Natural Polymers in Cosmetic Products 237
8.3.1 Impact on the Stability 237
8.3.1.1 Cosmetic Products: Complex Systems Subjected to Destabilization 237
8.3.1.2 Stabilizing Properties of Natural Polymers in Cosmetic Emulsions and Suspensions 239
8.3.1.3 Role of Natural and Semi-synthetic Polymers in Cleansing Products 241
8.3.2 Impact on the Rheological Properties 243
8.3.2.1 Rheology of Cosmetics: A Key from Manufacturing to End-User 243
8.3.2.2 Natural Polymers and Derivatives as Rheological Agents in Cosmetics 243
8.3.2.3 Natural Polymers to Control Formulations Stability and Texture 244
8.3.2.4 Controlling End-User Expectations 246
8.3.3 Impact on the Properties During Application 250
8.3.3.1 Impact of Polymers on the Sensory Properties 250
8.3.3.2 Polysaccharides Used as Conditioning Agents and Active Ingredients 253
8.3.3.3 Proteins Used as Conditioning Agents and Active Ingredients 254
8.4 Examples of Cosmetic Formulations Including Polymers 255
8.4.1 Skin Cleansers 256
8.4.2 Hair Cleanser and Hair Conditioner 256
8.4.3 Skin Care 258
8.4.4 Toothpaste 259
8.5 Conclusions 262
References 262
9 Pharmaceutical Applications of Natural Polymers 267
List of Abbreviations 267
9.1 Introduction 268
9.2 Portals of Drug Administration in the Human Body 268
9.3 Transdermal Drug Delivery Devices 269
9.3.1 Types of Transdermal Drug Delivery Systems 270
9.3.1.1 Reservoir System 270
9.3.1.2 Matrix System 270
9.3.1.3 Microreservoir System 271
9.3.2 Natural Polymers in Transdermal Drug Delivery 271
9.3.2.1 Controlled Release Systems 272
9.3.2.2 Matrix 272
9.3.2.3 Rate Controlling Membrane 273
9.3.2.4 Adhesives 274
9.3.2.5 Penetration Enhancers 276
9.3.2.6 Backing Layer 276
9.3.2.7 Release Liner 277
9.4 Topical Drug Delivery 277
9.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages 278
9.4.2 Composition of a Topical Formulation 278
9.4.3 Types of Topical Formulations 279
9.4.4 Natural Polymers in Topical Delivery Systems 279
9.5 Oral Drug Delivery Systems 285
9.5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Oral Route 285
9.5.2 Current Challenges and Natural Polymer-Based Innovations in Oral Drug Delivery 286
9.6 Parenteral Drug Delivery Systems 286
9.6.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Parenteral Drug Delivery 287
9.6.2 Properties of Parenteral Drug Molecules 287
9.6.3 Current Proprietary Parenteral Devices 288
9.6.4 Future Challenges of Parenteral Devices 288
9.7 Nasal Drug Delivery Systems 289
9.7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Nasal Drug Delivery 290
9.7.2 Natural Polymers in Nasal Drug Delivery 290
9.8 Hydrogel-Based Drug Delivery Systems 291
9.8.1 Hydrogels in Transdermal Patches 294
9.8.2 Nanoparticles for Controlled Delivery 295
9.8.3 Hydrogels for Wound Dressing 296
9.8.4 Polymeric Crosslinking in Hydrogels 296
9.8.5 Natural Polymers in Hydrogels 297
9.8.6 The Preparation Techniques of Hydrogels 302
9.8.7 Microgels 305
9.8.8 Microgels from Natural Polymers in Drug Delivery 306
References 306
10 Environmental Impact of Natural Polymers 318
10.1 Introduction 318
10.2 Market Trends for the Renewable Plastics 322
10.3 Renewable Polymers 325
10.4 Current Status and Future Trends 336
References 338
11 Economic Impacts of Natural Polymers 342
11.1 Introduction 342
11.2 Natural and Synthetic Polymers in the Industries 344
11.2.1 Comparing Natural and Synthetic Rubber 344
11.2.2 Some Natural Polymers of Economic Importance 345
11.2.3 Natural Biodegradable Polymers in the Industry 347
11.2.3.1 Biopolymers Directly Extracted from Biomass 347
11.2.3.2 Biopolymers Produced Directly by Natural or Genetically Modified Organisms 349
11.2.4 Industrial and Economic Importance of Natural Polymers 352
11.2.5 Demand for Natural Polymers in the United States 355
11.2.6 Biomaterials Market in Brazil and Across the Globe 357
11.2.7 Natural Polymers in Nanodrug Delivery 359
11.2.8 Natural Polymers and the Economic Implications of Capital and Technology Dependency on Less Developed Countries 361
11.3 Conclusion 363
References 364
12 Future Perspectives 366
12.1 Trends and Perspectives of Natural Polymers in Cosmetics Industry 366
12.2 Future Challenges of Parenteral Devices 368
12.3 Natural Polymer Bases in Gums in Food Applications 369
12.4 Nondestructive Testing 369
12.5 Addressing Limitations of Natural Polymers Due to Thermomechanical Sensitivity 370
References 370
Index 371