Performance Psychology (eBook)

Perception, Action, Cognition, and Emotion

Sven Hoffmann, Sylvain Laborde, Babett Lobinger, Alexandra Pizzera, Markus Raab (Herausgeber)

eBook Download: PDF | EPUB

2015 | 1. Auflage
366 Seiten
Elsevier Science (Verlag)
978-0-12-803391-3 (ISBN)

This book integrates findings from across domains in performance psychology to focus on core research on what influences peak and non-peak performance. The book explores basic and applied research identifying cognition-action interactions, perception-cognition interactions, emotion-cognition interactions, and perception-action interactions. The book explores performance in sports, music, and the arts both for individuals and teams/groups, looking at the influence of cognition, perception, personality, motivation and drive, attention, stress, coaching, and age. This comprehensive work includes contributions from the US, UK, Canada, Germany, and Australia. - Integrates research findings found across domains in performance psychology - Includes research from sports, music, the arts, and other applied settings - Identifies conflicts between cognition, action, perception, and emotion - Explores influences on both individual and group/team performance - Investigates what impacts peak performance and error production

This book integrates findings from across domains in performance psychology to focus on core research on what influences peak and non-peak performance. The book explores basic and applied research identifying cognition-action interactions, perception-cognition interactions, emotion-cognition interactions, and perception-action interactions. The book explores performance in sports, music, and the arts both for individuals and teams/groups, looking at the influence of cognition, perception, personality, motivation and drive, attention, stress, coaching, and age. This comprehensive work includes contributions from the US, UK, Canada, Germany, and Australia. - Integrates research findings found across domains in performance psychology- Includes research from sports, music, the arts, and other applied settings- Identifies conflicts between cognition, action, perception, and emotion- Explores influences on both individual and group/team performance- Investigates what impacts peak performance and error production

Performance Psychology 4
Copyright 5
Contents 6
Contributors 14
Preface 16
WHAT IS PERFORMANCE PSYCHOLOGY? 16
WHAT COMPONENTS OF PERFORMANCE PSYCHOLOGY ARE CONSIDERED? 17
HOW IS THE BOOK STRUCTURED? 18
Section A - What is Performance Psychology? 20
Overview 20
1 - The Building Blocks of Performance: An Overview 22
PERCEPTION 23
ACTION 26
COGNITION 26
EMOTION 27
REFERENCES 28
2 - Theoretical Framework of Performance Psychology: An Action Theory Perspective 30
DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF PERFORMANCE PSYCHOLOGY 31
Performance and Psychology 31
Structure of Performance Orientation 32
Characteristics of Peak Performance 33
The Action Paradigm—A Meta-Theoretical Perspective on Performance 34
The Primacy of Action 34
Intention—The Organizing Principle of Action 36
The Action Space and Its Situational Configuration 37
The Functional Architecture of Actions 39
System Levels of Action Organization 39
The Phase Structure of Actions 39
Functional Systems of Action Control 41
Functionality of Emotional Processes with Special Reference to Performance 42
Multifacetedness and Functional Complexity 42
Functional Disturbances 43
Options in Emotional Processing 44
CONCLUSION 45
REFERENCES 45
3 - Measurement Considerations in Performance Psychology 50
Measurement Considerations in Performance Psychology 50
TYPES OF MEASURES 51
Quantitative Measures 51
The Concept of Reliability 52
The Concept of Validity 52
Statistical Power and Sample Size 52
Administering and Interpreting Performance Measures 53
Qualitative Measures 53
Sampling: The Importance of Case Selection 54
Methodological Triangulation and Interpretative Pluralism 54
Transferability of Measures and Research Outcomes 54
MEASUREMENT AND THEORY DEVELOPMENT 55
Alternative Models 55
The Principle of Parsimony 55
TWO-PARAMETER MODEL FOR CAPTURING THE COGNITIVE–AFFECTIVE–BEHAVIORAL LINKAGE IN PERFORMANCE PSYCHOLOGY 56
NEW TRENDS IN PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT 59
SUMMARY 61
REFERENCES 61
4 - Applications within Performance Psychology 64
FUNCTIONS OF APPLIED PERFORMANCE PSYCHOLOGY 65
THE ROAD TO EXCELLENCE 66
DEVELOPING AN ECOLOGICALLY APPROPRIATE PERFORMANCE PSYCHOLOGY PROGRAM IN MUSIC 69
CONSIDERATIONS FOR IMPLEMENTING PERFORMANCE PSYCHOLOGY 72
Phase 1—Orientation 72
Phase 2—Activity Analysis 73
Phase 3—Individual/Team Assessment 73
Phase 4—Conceptualization 74
Phase 5—Psychological Skills Training 75
Phase 6—Implementation 75
Phase 7—Evaluation 76
CONCLUSION 77
REFERENCES 77
Section B - Performance Phenomena of Cognitive–Action Interaction 84
Overview 84
5 - Bridging the Gap between Action and Cognition: An Overview 86
COGNITION AND ACTION 87
THE YIPS IN GOLF 89
Neurological Origin: Focal Dystonia 90
Psychological Origin: Choking 91
Motor Origin: Dynamic Stereotype 91
Diagnosing and Treating the Yips 92
THE EDUCATION OF SOCCER COACHES 94
TALENT IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT IN HIGH-PERFORMANCE SPORTS 97
CONCLUSION 101
REFERENCES 101
6 - Improving Performance by Means of Action–Cognition Coupling in Athletes and Coaches 106
THE PROFESSION OF COACHING 107
PURPOSE 108
DEVELOPMENT OF COACHING EXPERTISE 108
History of Leadership in Sport 108
Behavioral Theories 109
Situational Theories 109
Multidimensional Model of Leadership 110
Member Characteristics and Coach Behavior 111
Gender 111
Age and Experience 112
Psychological Qualities 112
Coach Behavior and Satisfaction 112
Coach Behavior and Performance 113
Summary of Leadership in Sport 113
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF SUCCESSFUL COACHING 113
EXPECTANCY EFFECTS IN COMPETITIVE SPORT 115
Step 1—Coach Develops Expectations for Athlete Performance 115
Step 2—Expectations Influence Coaching Behaviors 116
Step 3—Perceptions of Coach Behavior Affects Athletes 116
Step 4—Athlete Performance Conforms to Coach Expectations 117
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 117
REFERENCES 117
7 - Music Performance: Expectations, Failures, and Prevention 122
COMMUNALITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SPORTS AND MUSIC PERFORMANCE 123
PERFORMANCE FAILURES IN MUSICIANS 124
Music Performance Anxiety 124
Choking under Pressure 125
Dynamic Stereotype 126
Musician’s Dystonia 127
IMPROVING PERFORMANCE IN MUSICIANS 129
A HEURISTIC MODEL OF PERFORMANCE FAILURES IN MUSICIANS 131
CONCLUSION: SOME IMPLICATIONS FOR PREVENTION 133
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 134
REFERENCES 134
8 - Motor Imagery and Mental Training in Older Adults 140
MOTOR IMAGERY AS A PREREQUISITE FOR MENTAL TRAINING 141
MOTOR IMAGERY AND MENTAL TRAINING IN OLDER ADULTS 142
MENTAL BALANCE TRAINING FOR POSTURAL CONTROL 143
Method 144
Participants 144
Postural Control 144
Self-Efficacy 144
Interviews 144
Intervention Procedures 145
Relaxation 145
MI Ability 145
Balance Experience 146
Mental Training for Balance Tasks 146
Reflection 147
Results and Discussion 147
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH 149
REFERENCES 149
Section C - Dysfunctional Learning, Errors, and Other Performance Phenomena of Perception–Cognition Interactions 152
9 - Bridging the Gap between Perception and Cognition: An Overview 154
NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL IMPLEMENTATION OF COGNITIVE MECHANISMS GUIDING PERCEPTION AND ACTION 155
Prefrontal Cortex and Attentional Selection 156
“The Winner Takes It All” 159
The Role of Dopamine 161
COGNITIVE MODELS: DRIFT DIFFUSION 161
CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK 165
REFERENCES 166
10 - Performance and Error Monitoring: Causes and Consequences 170
THEORIES OF ERROR PROCESSING 171
METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES WHEN MEASURING RESPONSE-RELATED EEG ACTIVITY 175
PREDICTING ERRORS 179
Predicting Behavioral Adaptation 179
Individual Differences and Error Monitoring 181
CONCLUSION 183
REFERENCES 184
11 - Committing Errors as a Consequence of an Adverse Focus of Attention 188
“SERIOUS” ERRORS IN THE COURSE OF PERCEPTION 188
SELECTIVE ATTENTION AS BIASED COMPETITION 189
SELECTIVE ATTENTION AND CHANGE BLINDNESS 192
PERCEPTUAL ERRORS UNDER CONDITIONS OF INATTENTION 195
Electrophysiological Evidence for the Role of Selective Attention in Change Detection 198
SELECTIVE ATTENTION AND VISUAL AWARENESS 200
CONCLUSION 203
REFERENCES 203
12 - Lifestyle and Interventions for Improving Cognitive Performance in Older Adults 208
COGNITIVE LEISURE ACTIVITY 210
Cognitive Training: Intervention Studies 210
Physical Training: Intervention Studies 214
CONCLUSION 217
REFERENCES 218
Section D - Self-Other Perceptions and Other Performance Phenomena of Perception-Action Interactions 224
13 - Bridging the Gap between Perception and Action: An Overview 226
HOW DOES PERCEPTION AFFECT ACTION? 227
HOW DOES ACTION AFFECT PERCEPTION? 232
ONLINE AND OFFLINE EFFECTS OF THE PERCEPTION–ACTION LINK 234
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH 236
REFERENCES 237
14 - Capturing Motion for Enhancing Performance: An Embodied Cognition Perspective on Sports and the Performing Arts 242
OVERVIEW OF THEORETICAL APPROACHES 243
OVERVIEW OF EMPIRICAL RESEARCH 244
Research in the Performing Arts 245
Research in Sports 248
CONCLUSION 249
REFERENCES 251
15 - Auditory Action Perception 254
AUDITORY PERCEPTION 254
AUDITORY ACTION PERCEPTION 255
BIDIRECTIONAL ACTION PERCEPTION COUPLING 255
INTERNAL MODEL AND REAFFERENCES 257
EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE 258
Auditory Action Perception with Natural Movement Sounds 260
Auditory Action Perception with Artificial Movement Sounds (Sonification) 262
Motor Perception 263
Motor Control and Learning 264
Outlook in Applied Fields 265
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH 266
REFERENCES 267
16 - Visual Perception in Expert Action 272
STATE OF RESEARCH 273
Temporal Aspects of Visual Perception and Action 273
Offline Use of Visual Information for the Control of Action 273
Online Use of Visual Information for the Control of Action 274
Timing of Optical Information Pick-Up 276
Spatial Aspects of Visual Perception and Action 277
APPLIED SCIENCE: THE VISUAL CONTROL OF BASKETBALL SHOOTING 280
Reinterpretation of Previous Studies 282
Methodological Considerations 283
FUTURE RESEARCH 285
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 286
REFERENCES 286
Section E - Performance under Pressureof Individuals or Teamsand Other Performance Phenomena of Emotion–Cognition Interactions 292
17 - Bridging the Gap between Emotion and Cognition: An Overview 294
EMOTIONS AND OTHER AFFECTIVE PHENOMENA 295
COGNITION: A NECESSARY DISTINCTION BETWEEN EXECUTIVE AND NON-EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS 296
PERFORMANCE-ORIENTED THEORIES BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN EMOTION AND COGNITION 297
General Emotion–Performance Theories 297
The Cognitive-Motivational-Relational Theory 297
Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning 297
The Biopsychosocial Model of Challenge and Threat 298
Theory of Challenge and Threat States in Athletes 299
Performance-Oriented Emotion–Cognition Theories 299
Boxes and Arrows Frameworks 299
Theory of Reinvestment 300
Attentional Control Theory 301
Neurovisceral Integration Model 301
A Critical View of the Theories Reviewed 302
CONTENT OF SECTION E 305
CONCLUSION 305
REFERENCES 306
18 - Performing under Pressure: Influence of Personality-Trait-Like Individual Differences 310
PTLIDS AND THE INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE UNDER PRESSURE 311
Competitive Trait Anxiety 312
Definition and Background 312
Influence on Performance under Pressure 312
Trait Emotional Intelligence 313
Definition and Background 313
Influence on Performance under Pressure 313
Hardiness 314
Definition and Background 314
Influence on Performance under Pressure 314
Mental Toughness 314
Definition and Background 314
Influence on Performance under Pressure 315
Optimism and Pessimism 315
Definition and Background 315
Influence on Performance under Pressure 316
Perfectionism 317
Definition and Background 317
Influence on Performance under Pressure 317
Reinvestment 318
Definition and Background 318
Influence on Performance under Pressure 318
Resilience 319
Definition and Background 319
Influence on Performance under Pressure 320
Sensation Seeking (Risk Taking) 320
Definition and Background 320
Influence on Performance under Pressure 320
PTLID Summary 321
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS WITHIN PTLID RESEARCH 321
Integrating and Combining PTLIDs 321
PTLIDs: An Interactionist Approach 323
Trait Activation 324
Appraisals 324
Physiological Measures 325
THE BLANKET APPROACH: GUIDELINES FOR USE AND CONCLUDING REMARKS 325
REFERENCES 326
19 - The Influence of Hormonal Stress on Performance 334
INSTRUCTIONS FOR GETTING YOUR DREAM JOB BASED ON CORTISOL RESEARCH 334
CORTISOL—WHAT IS IT AND WHAT DOES IT DO? 335
STATE AND TRAIT INFLUENCES ON CORTISOL 336
CORTISOL AND PERFORMANCE 337
Cortisol and Sports Performance 338
Cortisol and Outcome in Sports 338
Model of Neuroendocrine and Mood Responses to a Competitive Situation 338
Critique of the Model of Neuroendocrine and Mood Responses to a Competitive Situation 339
Cortisol and Cognitive Performance 339
Cognitive-Processing Hypothesis 340
Critique of the Cognitive-Processing Hypothesis 341
CORTISOL–PERFORMANCE FRAMEWORK 342
SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK 344
REFERENCES 344
20 - Performing under Pressure: High-Level Cognition in High-Pressure Environments 348
PROBLEM SOLVING 349
CREATIVITY 349
DECISION-MAKING 350
COMPARING PROBLEM SOLVING AND CREATIVITY 351
COMPARING DECISION-MAKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING/CREATIVITY 352
EMOTIONAL INFLUENCE ON HIGHER COGNITION 352
Problem Solving 353
Creativity 354
Decision-Making 355
CONCLUSION AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 355
Future Research on Pressure and High-Level Cognition 356
Future Research on Affective States and High-Level Cognition 356
REFERENCES 358
Index 360
A 360
B 361
C 361
D 362
E 362
F 362
G 363
H 363
I 363
J 363
K 363
L 363
M 363
N 364
O 364
P 364
Q 366
R 366
S 366
T 367
V 367
W 367
Y 367

Chapter 2

Theoretical Framework of Performance Psychology

An Action Theory Perspective

Jürgen R. Nitsch1, and Dieter Hackfort2 1Department of Performance Psychology, Institute of Psychology, German Sport University Cologne, Germany 2University of the Federal Armed Forces Munich, Germany

Abstract

First, the psychological perspective on performance is characterized with regard to the scope of performance psychology, the structure of performance orientation, and the characteristics of peak performance. The second step addresses the action theoretical foundation of performance psychology. Third, particular attention is given to the functional and dysfunctional roles of pleasant as well as unpleasant emotions in action organization.

In particular, the action theoretical perspective as developed by the authors is characterized by three fundamental assumptions: (1) The basic nature of humans is substantiated by the necessity and capability of organizing life by actions. (2) Action is a system process, that is, the integrated response of an agent to his or her present situation in the world. (3) Psychological processes, states, and traits are considered as fundamentally related to action.

These assumptions are differentiated with respect to intention as the organizing principle of action; situation as the actual context of action established by the constellation of person, environment, and task; system levels of action organization (i.e., physical, biological, mental, and social); the phase structure of actions (i.e., anticipation, realization, and interpretation); and functional systems of action control (i.e., cognitive, emotional, and automatic).

Keywords

Action phases; Action space; Action theory; Anticipation; Emotion; Intention; Peak performance; Performance psychology; Situated action; Systems approach

Performance is a constituent element of human life and a particular objective of manifold everyday activities. Consequently, it is addressed from the perspective of different scientific disciplines ranging from philosophy to biochemistry. In psychology, performance became a traditional topic in various fields of fundamental and applied psychology, e.g., in educational psychology, occupational psychology, clinical psychology, and sport psychology. Aside from the test diagnostic assessment of “classic” performance variables (e.g., reaction time, concentration, intelligence), numerous empirical studies are focused on the efficiency and vulnerability of mental functioning on the one hand and on social interaction in performance settings on the other. Typical issues are learning and memory; problem solving; decision-making; movement control; time management; learning and achievement motivation; coping with stress, anxiety, and failure; error prevention; performance-related mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders; burnout and dropout; as well as team building; division of tasks; allocation of responsibilities; teamwork skills; conflict management; mobbing prevention; and leadership style. In applied sport psychology, “performance psychology” commonly covers a toolbox of intervention techniques related to “mental power,” “mental strength,” “mental toughness,” “mental fitness,” or more specifically to self-confidence and self-efficacy, for example, self-motivation, self-programming, goal-setting, self-talk, imagery, visualization and mental training, stress-inoculation, cognitive reframing, attention control, relaxation, and biofeedback (see, e.g., Dosil, 2006; Hackfort & Tenenbaum, 2006; Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996).

In spite of those multifarious aspects, there has been, however, neither a comprehensive and consensual definition of performance psychology until now nor an integrative theory that provides the potential to systematically guide research and application, thus making the dynamic complexity of human performance sufficiently understandable, controllable, and communicable. So, it is worth paying particular attention to these issues. This will happen in three theory-oriented steps: First, the psychological perspective on performance is characterized, providing a preliminary understanding of performance psychology and its subject area. The second and main step addresses the needed (meta-) theoretical foundation of performance psychology. Accordingly, the focus is not on listing various performance-related theoretical concepts (e.g., for team sports thoroughly carried out by Lebed & Bar-Eli, 2013) but on embedding and considering the performance issue within the overall context of human action organization. Therefore, essentials of the action theory perspective as developed by the authors are outlined and specified with regard to the issue at hand. Third, particular attention is given to the functional role of emotions in action organization. This will contribute to further illustrating action theoretical postulates and to a more proper theory-based understanding of emotional states and processes with special regard to both performance and in general.

Definition and Scope of Performance Psychology

Performance and Psychology

The general task of performance psychology is related to the description, explanation, prediction, and optimization of performance-oriented activities in accordance with general and domain-specific ethical standards. The psychological perspective on performance comprises three issues: (1) the psychological fundamentals of performance-oriented activities in various action domains such as labor, politics, arts, music, or sports; (2) psychological transfer effects of performance-oriented activities in particular with regard to personality development, self-esteem, time management, stress control, communication skills, etc.; and (3) optimization of the capability to achieve demanding mental tasks.

This understanding refers to different agents, for example, individuals, groups, and organizations, young and elderly, as well as people with or without disabilities. It covers different motives, domains, and kinds of activity, for example, school/academic education, the whole range of professional activities, health-oriented sport and exercise, and elite sports, housekeeping, and playing music, as well as strange and/or extraordinary performances documented in the Guinness World Records. Even health, well-being, youthfulness, beautifulness or life expectancy are increasingly considered to be products of more or less successfully self-managed activity for which the person is self-responsible. In addition, the preceding definition includes different proficiency levels (e.g., novices and experts, amateurs and professionals) as well as different criteria of performance, for example, primary criteria related to the action itself and its direct results (frequency, duration, speed, accuracy, novelty, required effort, and their combinations), and secondary criteria in the sense of external/extrinsic social evaluation and feedback. According to Bem’s (1972) “self-perception theory,” the latter follows a simple logic: If I (or someone else) receive recognition such as praise, awards, applause, or many scientific citations, then the corresponding performance must have been outstanding! (As we all know, that is often a misguiding conclusion!)

For a better understanding of the psychological perspective on performance, it is necessary to distinguish two functional aspects of performance: (1) performance as a means to an end with regard to the motives and interests that are intended to satisfy by the consequences of a performance action; (2) performance as an end in itself, that is, the accent is on the self-reinforcing performance activity itself and its progressive perfection. In this sense, striving for excellence more or less turns into functional autonomy.

Furthermore, we must be aware of the formally twofold usage of the term “performance” (1) as related to a class of specific actions and outcomes or (2) as a more or less marked dimension of any kind of human action (that is the position preferred here).

Structure of Performance Orientation

The key features of any performance orientation can be summarized as follows (see Figure 1):

1. Reference Standards: Feeling challenged to set/raise and to meet/exceed demanding reference standards, which are considered as binding for the evaluation of the course and outcome of an action and specified by the habitual and/or actual aspiration level. According to well-known conceptions of achievement motivation, typical references are individual’s prior performance (Individual Reference Standard; e.g., actual “handicap” of a golf player), the performance of relevant others (Interindividual ReferenceStandard; e.g., handicap or actual results of other golf players on a tour), the demands of a given task (Task Reference Standard; e.g., the “par” as the strokes calculated for one “hole” in golf), and/or a specific standard value that must be met (Normative Reference Standard; e.g., maximum handicap needed to be allowed to play on a golf course).

Figure 1 Structure of performance orientation (broken lines...

Erscheint lt. Verlag	24.9.2015
Sprache	englisch
Themenwelt	Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Allgemeine Psychologie
	Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Biopsychologie / Neurowissenschaften
	Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Test in der Psychologie
	Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Verhaltenstherapie
	Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Humanbiologie
	Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Zoologie
ISBN-10	0-12-803391-6 / 0128033916
ISBN-13	978-0-12-803391-3 / 9780128033913

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