Continuity and Discontinuity in the Peopling of Europe (eBook)

Silvana Condemi is an anthropologist who studied at the Universities of Paris VI and Bordeaux (France).  She is currently Director of Research at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) in the laboratory of Anthropology at the University of Marseille, where she directs the unit of paleoanthropology. She has specialized in Pleistocene human evolution, in particular concerning the origin and evolution of Neanderthals and on the emergence of modern humans. She conducts field work in the Middle East and Europe. Her research focuses on interpretation of the archeological record, on patterns of human anatomical variation, the relationship between genetics and environment, ecogeographical patterning and, more recently, collaboration on ancient DNA analysis and modelling of Neanderthal populations. Gerd-Christian Weniger is a palaeolithic archaeologist with special interest in human cultural and biological evolution during the Upper Pleistocene in Europe and the Near East. Since 1991 he is professor of Prehistory at the University of Cologne and since 1996 he is director of the Neanderthal Museum. His current research includes the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition in Europe. As director of the Neanderthal Museum he is engaged in various research projects including field work in the Western Mediterranean and directing NESPOS an interactive online database on the archaeology and anthropology of Neanderthals.

Conference Photos 7
Contents 12
Contributors 16
Chapter 1 Neanderthals and Emergent Palaeoanthropology 50 Years Ago 24
Chapter 2One Hundred Fifty Years of Neanderthal Discoveries: Continuity and Discontinuity 33
References 38
Chapter 3The Genus Homo: Origin, Speciation and Dispersal 39
Introduction 39
Early Searches for the ‘Cradle of Mankind’ 41
The Earliest Evidence of Homo 43
Excurse 43
The Potential ‘Candidates’ for the ‘Earliest’ Homo 44
Counting of Species – Purely a Matter of Taste? 52
How Many Homo-Species Were There? 52
Opposing Views of Lumpers and Splitters 55
Scenario I: Multiregional Evolution Model (MRE) 55
Scenario II: Recent African Origin Models (RAOM) 58
Concluding Remarks 60
References 61
Chapter 4: Before the Neanderthals: Hominid Evolution in Middle Pleistocene Europe 68
Introduction 68
Homo neanderthalensis as an Individuated Entity 69
The Middle Pleistocene Hominid Record in Europe 70
Conclusions 73
References 73
Chapter 5The Earliest European Human Peopling After the Recent Discoveries: Early Neanderthals or Different Lineages? 75
References 85
Chapter 6: The Gran Dolina-TD6 Human Fossil Remains and the Origin of Neanderthals 87
Introduction 87
The Age of theTD6 Level and the Human Fossil Sample 88
Cranial and Mandibular Features 89
Dental Evidence 90
Postcranial Remains 91
Discussion and Concluding Remarks 92
References 93
Chapter 7: The Hominid Fossils from China Contemporaneous with the Neanderthals and Some Related Studies 96
The Main Hominid Fossils Contemporaneous to the Neanderthals 96
Hexian 96
Xujiayao 96
Chaoxian 96
Maba 97
Xichuan 99
Hominid Fossil Sites Recently Found in China 99
Tianyuan Cave 100
West Hubei and Three Gorge Regions 100
Recent Studies on Middle and Late Pleistocene Human Evolution in China 100
Morphological Features on the Chinese Hominid Fossils Suggesting Gene Flow Between Middle-Late Pleistocene Hominids in China and Neanderthals 102
Studies on Nanjing No. 1 and No. 2 Hominid Fossils 102
Brain Evolution: Studies of Hominid Endocasts 104
Some Recent Studies on Late Pleistocene Human Evolution in China 104
Conclusion 105
References 105
Chapter 8: Behavioral and Cultural Origins of Neanderthals: A Levantine Perspective 107
The Levallois Flaking System1 108
Cores on Flakes 109
Soft Hammer Technique 110
Systematic Blade Production in Lower Paleolithic Times 110
Adaptation, Mobility, Diffusionand Colonization 111
References 115
Chapter 9: Discontinuities in the Faunal Assemblages and Early Human Populations of Central and Western Europe During the Middleand Late Pleistocene 119
Introduction 119
Specific Geographic Conditions in Central and Western Europe 119
Immigration and Local Extinction are the Pattern of Faunal Exchange in Western and Central Europe 122
Biostratigraphy of the Middle and Late Pleistocene in Central Europe 122
Ecology and Biostratigraphy of German Localities with Human Remains 124
Middle Pleistocene 124
The Saalian 126
The Eemian 126
The Weichselian 127
Conclusions 128
References 128
Chapter 10: Neanderthal Geographical and Chronological Variation 131
Introduction 131
Chronological Variability 131
Mauer 131
Arago 132
Boxgrove 133
Atapuerca – Sima de los Huesos 133
Vérteszöllös 133
Bilzingsleben 134
Swanscombe 135
Steinheim 135
Petralona 135
Biache-Saint-Vaast 135
Conclusions 136
The Diversity of the Neanderthals 137
Conclusions 142
References 142
Chapter 11A Preliminary Approach to the Neanderthal Speciation by Distance Hypothesis: A View from the Shoulder Complex 144
Introduction 144
Materials and Methods 145
Materials 145
Methods 146
Study of the Clavicles 146
Study of the Scapulas 146
Results 147
The Clavicle 147
Curvatures in Cranial View 147
Curvatures in Dorsal View 147
The Length 148
Costal Tuberosity and Subclavius Sulcus 149
The Scapula 150
The Glenoid Index 150
The Scapula Neck Index 150
Angle A 150
The Axillary Border 151
Discussion 152
The Clavicle 152
The Scapula 153
Conclusion 153
References 154
Chapter 12: Facts and Ideas in Paleolithic Growth Studies (Paleoauxology) 156
Introduction 156
Sampling Nonadult Neanderthals in Europe 156
Becoming a Neanderthal 157
Fetus, Neonates, and Infants 157
Age-Related Changes in Individual Distinguishing Features 158
Infracranial Skeletal Morphology and Neanderthal Traits Revisited 159
The Superior Pubic Ramus 160
Lower Limb Segment Proportions 162
Thumb Proportions and Morphology 163
Is There a Neanderthal Growth Pattern? 163
Cranial Size 163
Dental Development 164
Discussion 164
Life History of Neanderthal Children 165
Indicators of Nonspecific Stress 165
Anomalies, Bone Lesions 165
Concluding Remarks 166
References 167
Chapter 13Dental Development and Age at Death of a Middle Paleolithic Juvenile Hominin from Obi-Rakhmat Grotto, Uzbekistan 171
Introduction 171
Material and Methods 172
Results 174
Discussion 174
Anomalous Molar Morphology 174
Developmental Implications 175
References 178
Chapter 14 Computerized Reconstruction of Prenatal Growth Trajectories in the Dentition: Implications for the Taxonomic Status of Neandertals 180
Introduction 180
The Model 181
Implications for Neandertal Tooth Formation 185
Enamel Thickness 185
Cusp Pattern 185
Root Formation 186
Interpretation 186
References 187
Chapter 15: Endostructural Characterisation of the Regourdou 1 Neanderthal Proximal Arm: Bilateral Asymmetry and Handedness 189
Introduction 189
Methods 190
Results 190
References 192
Chapter 16: A Three-Dimensional Look at the Neanderthal Mandible 193
Introduction 193
Allometry 193
Biomechanics 194
Our Goals 195
Materials and Methods 196
Samples 196
Data 196
Methods 197
Size-Shape Principal Components Analysis 197
Partial-Least Squares Analysis (PLS) 197
Results 198
Allometry 198
Co-variation Between the Anterior and Posterior Regions 198
Discussion and Conclusions 203
References 204
Chapter 17Integration and Homology of “Chignon” and “Hemibun” Morphology 207
Introduction 207
Aim of This Study 208
Materials and Methods 208
Samples 208
Data 209
Analyses 210
Results 211
Singular Warps: Pooled Sample 211
Singular Warps: Fossil Sample 211
Shape Regression 212
Discussion 213
Conclusions 215
References 215
Chapter 18 Virtual Synthesis of the Skull in Neanderthals by FESS 217
Introduction 217
How We Can Explain These Morphological Details with a Biomechanical Approach? 217
Materials and Methods 218
Results 221
Discussion 223
References 224
Chapter 19Neandertal mtDNA from a Late Pleistocene Human Mandible from the Cova del Gegant (Spain) 226
Introduction 226
Materials and Methods 227
Results and Discussion 228
References 230
Chapter 20 Towards Neanderthal Paleogenomics 231
References 233
Chapter 21Twelve Years of Neandertal Genetic Discoveries: State-of-the-Art and Future Challenges 234
Introduction 234
Part One – Neandertal and Modern Humans: Levels of Admixture 235
The Onset: The Feldhofer HVR-I Haplotype 235
A Point-by-Point Answer to the Critics 235
Critic 1: A Possible Numt? 235
Critic 2: An Unusual and Degraded Modern Human Haplotype? 236
Critic 3: Unknown Neandertal Sequences Might be More Modern-Like 236
Critic 4: Absence of Regional AffinityDoes Not Preclude Multiregionalism 237
Critic 5: Admixture Level Is Underestimated as Modern-Like Sequences Are Discarded as Contaminants 237
Critic 6: In-Silico Analyses Might Have Serious Flaws 237
Critic 7: Current Modern Humans Are Not the Contemporaries of Neandertals 239
Neandertal Genomics 239
Levels of Admixture 239
Timing the MRCA and the Divergence of Neandertal and Modern Human Lineages 240
Part Two – Neandertal Populations: Evolution of Genetic Diversity Over Space and Time 241
Preliminary Cautions 241
The Geographic Genetic Diversity of Neandertals 241
Neandertal Genetic Diversity Through Time 242
Part Three – Homo Sapiens in Light of the Complete Genome of Homo Neanderthalensis 242
Rationale 242
Getting the Neandertal Genome 243
An Unexpected Dream 243
Technological Breakthrough 243
Contamination Concerns 243
Filtering for Quality 244
Sequencing Errors 244
Artifactual Mutations 244
Contamination Concerns 244
Focusing on Candidate Genes 245
Beyond the Neandertal Genome 245
Conclusion 246
References 246
Chapter 22 Radiocarbon Dating the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic Transition: The Demise of the Last Neanderthals and the First Appearanceof Anatomically Modern Humans in Europe 250
Introduction 250
Dating the Transition – Old Problems, Recent Trends 253
Sample Context 253
Sample Contamination and Pre-treatment 253
The Hominin Record 254
Genetic and Palaeoanthropological Evidence 256
Directly Dated Hominin Fossils 256
Neanderthals 256
Anatomically Modern Humans 259
Summary 260
The Middle to Upper Palaeolithic Transition 260
“Transitional” Industries 262
The Campanian Ignimbrite Marker Horizon 264
Curve-Backed Piece Industries 265
Leaf Point Industries 269
Early Laminar Industries 272
Protoaurignacian – “Aurignacien 0” – “Fumanian” 276
The Emergence of the Aurignacian 280
The Emergence of “Behavioural Modernity” 286
Personal Ornaments 286
Figurative Art 288
Aurignacian Bone, Antler and Ivory Weapon Technology 289
The Relationship of the Aurignacian and the “Transitional” Industries 295
Interstratification? 295
Southern European Refugia? 295
Conclusions 298
References 300
Chapter 23Archaeological, Paleontological and Genomic Perspectives on Late European Neandertals at Vindija Cave, Croatia 310
Site Background 310
Vindija Faunal Sample 313
Chronometric Dating and the Earliest Modern Humans in Europe 313
Early Upper Paleolithic of Europe 314
The G Layer of Vindija Cave and the Modern Human Peopling of Europe 316
Genetics and Modern Human Origins Debate 317
Conclusions 319
References 320
Chapter 24 Late Neandertals and Early Modern Humans in Europe, Population Dynamics and Paleobiology 325
Introduction 325
The Human Evolutionary Background 326
Human Population Dynamics at the European Transition 327
The Earliest European Modern Humans: The Sample and the Issue 327
The Earliest European Modern Humans: The Morphology 328
The Earliest European Modern Humans: The Implications 330
The Subsequent European Modern Humans 332
Summary 333
Human Paleobiology at the European Transition 334
Late Neandertal Paleobiology 335
Early Modern Human Paleobiology 336
Paleobiological Issues 337
Summary 337
References 337
Chapter 25: Aliens from Outer Time? Why the “Human Revolution” Is Wrong, and Where Do We Go from Here? 340
Introduction 340
The Human Revolution Paradigm 341
Paradigm Lost 343
Acculturation at the Grotte du Renne? 343
Aurignacian/Châtelperronian Interstratifications? 345
Radiometrically Late “Transitional” Industries? 349
A Radiometrically Early Aurignacian? 352
Were Moderns, Not Neandertals, the Makers of the Châtelperronian? 352
Who Made the “Transitional” Industries of Eastern and Central Europe? 356
Paradigm Found 357
The Protoaurignacian 357
The Nassarius People 360
Contact and Admixture 362
Towards a Paleoethnographic-Historical Approach 365
The Neandertal: Fossil Human or Fossil Mirror? 368
References 370
Chapter 26 Neandertals and the Roots of Human Recency 376
Introduction 376
The Phyletic Distinction of Modern Humans: Background 377
The Impact of the Molecular Transition on Understanding Neandertal Phylogenetics 378
Is the Argument Against Neandertal Phyletic Distinction an Artifact of Liberal Thinking? 380
The Implications of Introgression8 381
So Can We Accept Neandertals as Human? 382
Discussion 382
Conclusion 384
References 384
Chapter 27 Epilogue: 150 Years of Neanderthal Research – A Hopeless Situation but Not Serious 387
Index 390