Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Volume 205 (eBook)

Foreword 5
Preface 7
Contents 9
Contributors 10
Gammarus spp. in Aquatic Ecotoxicology and Water Quality Assessment: Toward Integrated Multilevel Tests 11
1 Introduction 12
2 Culturing of Gammarids 15
3 Gammarids in Lethality Testing 17
3.1 Pesticides, Metals, and Surfactants 17
3.2 Extracted, Fractionated Sediments 18
3.3 Coastal Sediment Toxicity 18
4 Feeding Activity 20
4.1 Time--Response Feeding Assays 20
4.2 Food Choice Experiments 26
4.3 Leaf-Mass Feeding Assays Linked to Food Consumption 27
4.3.1 Feeding Activity and Survival Related to Toxicity or Abiotic Parameters (Ex Situ) 28
4.3.2 Feeding Rate, Uptake, and Depuration 29
4.4 Modeling of Feeding Activity and Rate 29
4.4.1 Field Estimates of Feeding Rates -- Modeling, Ingestion, and Egestion Rates 29
4.4.2 Carnivorous Feeding Activity 30
4.5 Post-exposure Feeding Depression Assay 30
4.6 Effects of Parasites on Gammarid Feeding Ecology 31
5 Behavior 32
5.1 Antipredator Behavior 32
5.1.1 Drift Behavior Linked to Predators 32
5.1.2 Drift Behavior Resulting from Pollution 32
5.1.3 The Effect of Parasitism on Antipredator Behavior 36
5.2 Multispecies Freshwater Biomonitor® (MFB) 37
5.2.1 Method Description 37
5.2.2 Behavioral Changes in the MFB Related to Toxic Effects 37
5.2.3 Behavioral Early Warning Responses After Pulsed Exposures 39
5.3 A Sublethal Pollution Bioassay with Pleopod Beat Frequency and Swimming Endurance 39
5.4 Behavior in Combination with Other Endpoints 39
5.4.1 Drift and Foraging Activity 39
5.4.2 Species Interaction and Feeding Activity in a Toxic System 40
5.4.3 Combined Assessment of Locomotory, Ventilatory, and Feeding Activity 40
5.4.4 Combined Assessment of Re-pairing of Precopula Pairs and Feeding Rate 41
6 Mode-of-Action Studies and Biomarkers 41
6.1 Bioenergetic Responses, Excretion Rate and Respiration Rate 42
6.1.1 O:N Ratio, Respiration, and Ammonia Excretion 42
6.1.2 Energy Input and Output with ''Scope-for-Growth'' Assays 42
6.2 Population Experiments, and Development and Reproduction Modeling 51
6.2.1 Growth, Density, and Age Composition 51
6.2.2 Life-History Traits 52
6.2.3 Population Endpoints Combined with Body-Burden and Metallothionein Induction 52
6.2.4 Embryogenesis 52
6.2.5 Population Structure and Dynamics 53
6.2.6 Population Experiments Combined with Modeling on Reproductive Output 53
6.3 Endpoints and Biomarkers for Endocrine Disruption in Gammarids 54
6.3.1 Vitellogenin-Like Proteins and Lipogenic Enzymes (ICD, ME, G6PD) 55
6.3.2 Heat Shock Proteins (hsp90) as Biomarkers for Endocrine Disruption in Gammarids 55
6.3.3 Chitin as a Biomarker for EDC Effects on Molting 56
6.3.4 Sex Ratio and Precopula Pairs 57
6.3.5 Gonad Histology and hsp90 57
6.3.6 Gametogenesis Activity and Gonad Maturation 58
6.4 Other Specific Biomarkers for Detecting Multiple Stressors in Gammarids 58
6.4.1 Heat Shock Proteins (hsc/hsp70) as Biomarkers for Stress Response in Gammarids 58
6.4.2 Metallothioneins and Lipid Peroxidation as a Biomarker for Metal Exposure and Oxidative Stress 59
6.4.3 Biomarkers to Assess Exoskeleton Integrity and the Molting Process 60
6.4.4 (Acetyl)-Cholinesterase Activity as a Biomarker for Neurotoxicity 60
6.4.5 Glutathione-S-Transferase Activity as a Biomarker for Detoxification 62
6.4.6 ATP Content as a Biomarker for Mycelium Species Composition on Gammarid Diet 62
7 Exposure Types 63
7.1 Pulsed Exposure Assays and Models 63
7.1.1 Pulsed Exposure, Uptake, and Elimination of Pesticides in Lab and In Situ 63
7.1.2 Pulsed Exposure Models 67
7.2 Sediment Toxicity Assays 67
7.2.1 Sediment Tests with Marine Amphipods 67
7.2.2 Sediment Assays Combined with Behavior 68
7.3 In Situ Tests 68
7.3.1 Ecological Relevance of In Situ Data 68
7.3.2 In Situ Survival and Physiological Status 70
7.3.3 In Situ Feeding Activity and Litter Breakdown 70
7.3.4 In Situ Tests as Part of a Whole Effluent Toxicity Study 71
7.3.5 In Situ Drift Behavior Resulting from Parasites 72
8 Discussion 72
8.1 Evaluation of Existing Methods 72
8.2 Perspectives on a Multimetric Gammarus spp. Test System 74
9 Summary 75
References 76
The Svalbard Glaucous Gull as Bioindicator Species in the European Arctic: Insight from 35 Years of Contaminants Research 87
1 Introduction 88
2 Contaminant Levels and Patterns 89
2.1 Legacy and Emerging Organochlorines 89
2.2 Chiral Legacy Organochlorines 91
2.3 Brominated Flame Retardants 91
2.4 Hydroxyl- and Methylsulfonyl-containing Metabolites 92
2.5 Per-fluorinated and Poly-fluorinated Alkyl Substances 93
2.6 Trace Elements and Organometals 93
2.7 Other Contaminants 94
3 Temporal Trends 94
3.1 Legacy Organochlorines 94
3.2 Brominated Flame Retardants 96
3.3 Mercury 96
4 Factors Influencing Bioaccumulation 96
4.1 Gender and Maternal Transfer 96
4.2 Age 97
4.3 Feeding Ecology and Trophic Levels 97
4.4 Site-Specific Accumulation 98
5 Biomarkers of Biological and Ecological Responses and Effects 99
5.1 Biotransformation Enzymes and Porphyrins 103
5.2 Retinoids 103
5.3 Hormones and Transport Proteins 104
5.3.1 Thyroid Hormones and Transport Proteins 104
5.3.2 Gonadal Steroid Hormones 105
5.3.3 Prolactin 106
5.3.4 Glucocorticoids 106
5.4 Basal Metabolism and Thermoregulation 107
5.5 Immunity and Parasites 108
5.5.1 White Blood Cells and Antibody Response 108
5.5.2 Parasite Infection 109
5.6 Chromosomes and DNA 110
5.6.1 Chromosome Aberrations 110
5.6.2 DNA Strand Break and Adduct Formation 111
5.7 Egg Characteristics 111
5.8 Feather Growth 111
5.9 Reproductive Behaviors 112
5.10 Reproductive Endpoints and Survival 113
5.11 Threshold Effect Levels 114
5.12 Egg Intake Advisory 115
6 Recommendations on the Use of Avian Bioindicator Species in the Arctic 115
7 Summary 117
8 Appendix: Chemical acronym definition, sample size, year of collection, and the list of congeners and compounds composing the concentration sums shown in Fig. 2 119
References 122
Fenamiphos and Related Organophosphorus Pesticides: Environmental Fate and Toxicology 127
1 Introduction 128
1.1 Chemistry of Organophosphorus Pesticides 128
1.2 Mode of Action of OP Compounds 129
1.3 Metabolism of OP Compounds 131
2 Fate and Transport of OP Compounds in the Environment 131
2.1 Transport Processes 132
2.1.1 Sorption 132
2.1.2 Volatilization 134
2.1.3 Leaching 135
2.1.4 Runoff 135
2.2 Chemical Processes 136
2.2.1 Hydrolysis 136
2.2.2 Oxidation/Reduction 136
2.2.3 Photolysis 136
2.3 Biological Processes 137
3 Soil Bioavailability of OP Compounds 139
4 OP Pesticides and Health 142
5 Fenamiphos 143
5.1 Environmental Fate 144
5.1.1 Breakdown in Water and Soils 144
5.1.2 Metabolism in Plants 148
5.2 Ecotoxicology 149
5.2.1 Effects on Wildlife 151
5.3 Toxicity and Fate in Mammals 152
5.3.1 Fate and Acute Toxicity 152
5.3.2 Long-Term Toxicity Studies 153
6 Isofenphos 154
6.1 Environmental Fate 155
6.1.1 Breakdown in Soil 155
6.1.2 Breakdown in Water 155
6.1.3 Breakdown in Vegetation 156
6.2 Ecotoxicology 156
6.2.1 Effects on Aquatic Organisms 156
6.2.2 Effects on Birds 156
6.3 Toxicity in Mammals 157
6.3.1 Acute Toxicity 157
6.3.2 Long-Term Toxicity 157
6.3.3 Reproductive Effects 158
6.3.4 Teratogenic Effects 158
6.3.5 Mutagenic Effects 158
6.3.6 Carcinogenic Effects 158
6.4 Fate in Humans and Animals 159
7 Coumaphos 160
7.1 Environmental Fate 161
7.1.1 Breakdown in Soil 161
7.1.2 Breakdown in Water 162
7.2 Ecotoxicology 162
7.2.1 Effects on Aquatic Organisms 162
7.2.2 Effects on Birds 162
7.2.3 Effects on Other Organisms 163
8 Future Research 163
9 Summary 163
References 164
Index 173