Structure and Function of Chloroplasts

Historical Outline.- Photosynthesis and the Chloroplast.- The Ultrastructure of Plastids.- A. Introduction.- B. Proplastids.- 1. The Prolamellar Body.- 2. Thylakoid Formation.- 3. Constituents of the Proplastids.- 4. Ribosomes.- 5. Nucleic Acid Fibrils.- 6. Microfilaments.- 7. Plastoglobuli.- 8. Stromacenter.- 9. Phytoferritin.- C. Amyloplasts, Proteinoplasts, and Elaioplasts.- D. Chloroplasts.- 1. Architecture of the Lamellar System.- 2. Ultrastructure of the Thylakoid Membrane.- E. Chromoplasts.- 1. The Globular Type.- 2. The Tubular Type.- 3. The Crystalline Type.- F. Literature.- Light-Induced Chloroplast Contraction and Movement.- A. Introduction.- B. Changes in Chloroplast Shape.- C. Light-Induced Chloroplast Movements.- 1. The Photoreceptor Problem.- a) Action Spectra of Chloroplast Movements.- b) The Location of the Photoreceptor.- c) Orientation of the Photoreceptor Molecules.- 2. Experiments in Mougeotia spec, a Green Alga.- a) Temperature Experiments in Mougeotia.- b) Localization of the Red-Far Red System in Mougeotia.- 3. Different Models for the Mechanism of Chloroplast Movement.- a) The Peristromium Hypothesis.- b) The Surface Tension Hypothesis.- c) The Electrokinetic Hypothesis.- d) The Hypothesis of Pulling Fibers.- e) Recent Hypotheses.- D. Literature.- Plastid Inheritance and Mutations.- A. Introduction.- B. Inheritance of Chloroplast Mutations.- 1. Gene Mutations.- 2. Plastome Mutations.- a) Maternal Inheritance.- b) Biparental Inheritance.- c) Gene-Induced Plastome Mutations.- d) Humulus japonicus.- e) Oenothera.- f) Euglena.- C. Nature of the Plastome.- 1. The Genetic Autonomy of Plastids.- 2. The Significance of Plastid DNA.- 3. The Origin of Plastids.- D. The Genetic Control of Chloroplast Development and Function.- 1. Biochemistry of Chloroplast Mutants.- 2. Mutants Affected in Photosynthetic Enzymes.- 3. Chlorophyll-Deficient Mutants.- 4. Carotenoid-Deficient Mutants.- 5. Chloroplast Mutants Defective in General Metabolism.- 6. Chloroplast Mutants with Unidentified Biochemical Defects.- a) Gene Mutations.- b) Plastome Mutations.- E. Concluding Remarks.- F. Literature.- Nucleic Acids and Information Processing in Chloroplasts.- A. Introduction.- B. Information Storage.- 1. In situ Studies.- 2. Studies on Extracted DNA.- 3. Preparation and Characterization.- 4. Physical Properties of Plant DNAs.- a) Higher Plants.- b) Algal Plastid DNAs.- 5. Coding Capacity of Chloroplast DNA.- 6. Sequence Homology of Plastid DNA.- C. Information Replication.- D. Information Transcription.- 1. Plastid RNAs.- 2. RNA Synthesis in Plastids.- 3. Affinities of Plastid rRNA.- E. Information Translation.- 1. Components of the Protein Synthetic System.- 2. Protein Synthesis in vitro.- 3. Identification of the Products of Plastid Protein Synthesis by Inhibitor Studies.- F. Information Processing in Acetabularia Plastids.- 1. Information Storage.- 2. Information Replication.- 3. Information Transcription.- 4. Ribosomal RNAs.- 5. Ribosomes.- 6. RNA Synthesis in Isolated Plastids.- 7. Information Translation.- 8. Conclusions.- G. Literature.- Lipids of Chloroplasts.- A. Phospholipids of Chloroplasts.- B. Glycolipids of Chloroplasts.- C. ?-Linolenic Esters in Lipids of Oxygen-Producing Chloroplasts.- D. The Plant Sulfolipid.- E. Deacylation of Chloroplast Lipids.- 1. Galactolipase.- 2. Sulfolipase.- 3. Phospholipases.- F. "Osrrnophilic"Historical Outline.- Photosynthesis and the Chloroplast.- The Ultrastructure of Plastids.- A. Introduction.- B. Proplastids.- 1. The Prolamellar Body.- 2. Thylakoid Formation.- 3. Constituents of the Proplastids.- 4. Ribosomes.- 5. Nucleic Acid Fibrils.- 6. Microfilaments.- 7. Plastoglobuli.- 8. Stromacenter.- 9. Phytoferritin.- C. Amyloplasts, Proteinoplasts, and Elaioplasts.- D. Chloroplasts.- 1. Architecture of the Lamellar System.- 2. Ultrastructure of the Thylakoid Membrane.- E. Chromoplasts.- 1. The Globular Type.- 2. The Tubular Type.- 3. The Crystalline Type.- F. Literature.- Light-Induced Chloroplast Contraction and Movement.- A. Introduction.- B. Changes in Chloroplast Shape.- C. Light-Induced Chloroplast Movements.- 1. The Photoreceptor Problem.- a) Action Spectra of Chloroplast Movements.- b) The Location of the Photoreceptor.- c) Orientation of the Photoreceptor Molecules.- 2. Experiments in Mougeotia spec, a Green Alga.- a) Temperature Experiments in Mougeotia.- b) Localization of the Red-Far Red System in Mougeotia.- 3. Different Models for the Mechanism of Chloroplast Movement.- a) The Peristromium Hypothesis.- b) The Surface Tension Hypothesis.- c) The Electrokinetic Hypothesis.- d) The Hypothesis of Pulling Fibers.- e) Recent Hypotheses.- D. Literature.- Plastid Inheritance and Mutations.- A. Introduction.- B. Inheritance of Chloroplast Mutations.- 1. Gene Mutations.- 2. Plastome Mutations.- a) Maternal Inheritance.- b) Biparental Inheritance.- c) Gene-Induced Plastome Mutations.- d) Humulus japonicus.- e) Oenothera.- f) Euglena.- C. Nature of the Plastome.- 1. The Genetic Autonomy of Plastids.- 2. The Significance of Plastid DNA.- 3. The Origin of Plastids.- D. The Genetic Control of Chloroplast Development and Function.- 1. Biochemistry of Chloroplast Mutants.- 2. Mutants Affected in Photosynthetic Enzymes.- 3. Chlorophyll-Deficient Mutants.- 4. Carotenoid-Deficient Mutants.- 5. Chloroplast Mutants Defective in General Metabolism.- 6. Chloroplast Mutants with Unidentified Biochemical Defects.- a) Gene Mutations.- b) Plastome Mutations.- E. Concluding Remarks.- F. Literature.- Nucleic Acids and Information Processing in Chloroplasts.- A. Introduction.- B. Information Storage.- 1. In situ Studies.- 2. Studies on Extracted DNA.- 3. Preparation and Characterization.- 4. Physical Properties of Plant DNAs.- a) Higher Plants.- b) Algal Plastid DNAs.- 5. Coding Capacity of Chloroplast DNA.- 6. Sequence Homology of Plastid DNA.- C. Information Replication.- D. Information Transcription.- 1. Plastid RNAs.- 2. RNA Synthesis in Plastids.- 3. Affinities of Plastid rRNA.- E. Information Translation.- 1. Components of the Protein Synthetic System.- 2. Protein Synthesis in vitro.- 3. Identification of the Products of Plastid Protein Synthesis by Inhibitor Studies.- F. Information Processing in Acetabularia Plastids.- 1. Information Storage.- 2. Information Replication.- 3. Information Transcription.- 4. Ribosomal RNAs.- 5. Ribosomes.- 6. RNA Synthesis in Isolated Plastids.- 7. Information Translation.- 8. Conclusions.- G. Literature.- Lipids of Chloroplasts.- A. Phospholipids of Chloroplasts.- B. Glycolipids of Chloroplasts.- C. ?-Linolenic Esters in Lipids of Oxygen-Producing Chloroplasts.- D. The Plant Sulfolipid.- E. Deacylation of Chloroplast Lipids.- 1. Galactolipase.- 2. Sulfolipase.- 3. Phospholipases.- F. "Osrrnophilic" Lipid Globules of Chloroplasts.- G. Assembly of Chloroplast Lipoprotein.- H. Reconstitution of Chloroplast Membrane Lipoprotein.- I. Literature.- Biochemistry of Photophosphorylation.- A. Historical Introduction.- B. Electron Flow Patterns.- C. Coupling of Phosphorylation to Electron Flow.- D. Phosphorylation Inhibitors.- E. Partial Reactions Requiring a High Energy State.- 1. Adenosine Triphosphatase.- 2. ATP-Pi Exchange.- 3. Two-Stage Photophosphorylation.- 4. Light-Induced Proton Gradient.- 5. ATP Formation by an Acid-Base Transition.- 6. Light-Induced Conformational Changes.- F. Photophosphorylation in vivo.- G. Literature.- Carbohydrate Metabolism by Chloroplasts.- A. Isolation of Chloroplasts.- 1. Aqueous Methods.- 2. Non-Aqueous Methods.- B. Compounds Formed during Photosynthetic CO2 Assimilation and Their Intramolecular Labeling Patterns.- 1. Spinach and Pea.- 2. Maize and Related Plants.- C. Enzymes Catalyzing the Reduction of CO2 to Carbohydrate.- 1. Plants Utilizing the Cycle of Calvin.- 2. Plants Utilizing the C4-Dicarboxylic Acid Pathway.- 3. Carboxylating Reactions.- D. Stoichiometry of Photosynthesis Measured in the Chloroplast.- E. Kinetics of CO2 Fixation.- 1. Induction Phenomenon.- 2. CO2 Dependent and Light-Dark Transients.- F. Factors Controlling the Reduction of CO2 to Carbohydrate.- 1. Temperature.- 2. pH.- 3. Enzyme Activation.- 4. Oxygen.- 5. Transport of Metabolites.- a) Intermediates of the Photosynthetic Carbon Reduction Cycle.- b) Glycolate.- 6. Orthophosphate and Pyrophosphate.- 7. Intermediates of the Photosynthetic Carbon Reduction Cycle.- G. Literature.- Biosynthesis by Chloroplasts.- A. Proteins.- 1. The Presence of DNA and RNA.- 2. Energy.- 3. Amino Acid-Activating Enzymes.- 4. Amino Acids.- 5. Overall Protein Synthesis by Chloroplasts.- B. Lipids.- 1. General.- 2. Fatty Acids.- a) General.- b) Specific Fatty Acids.- 3. Complete Lipids.- a) Phospholipids.- b) Galactosyl Glycerides.- c) Plant Sulpholipid.- C. Chloroplast Pigments.- 1. General.- 2. Chlorophylls.- a) ?-Aminolevulinic Acid (ALA) Synthesis.- b) Porphobilinogen (PBG) Synthesis.- c) Formation of Porphyrinogens.- d) Conversion of Urogen III into Protoporphyrin.- e) Chelation of Protoporphyrin.- f) Conversion of Mg Protoporphyrin into Chlorophyll a.- g) Chlorophyll Synthesis in Relation to Plastid Development.- h) Timing of Chlorophyll Biosynthesis.- i) Effect of Iron on Chlorophyll Synthesis.- j) Chlorophyll Synthesis in the Dark.- 3. Phycobilins.- 4. Carotenoids.- a) Formation of Carotenes.- b) Formation of Xanthophylls.- c) Stereospecificity of Carotenoid Biosynthesis.- d) Mechanism of Phytoene Formation.- e) Mechanism of Ring Formation.- f) Mechanism of Xanthophyll Formation.- g) Effect of Light.- h) Genetic Control of Carotenoid Synthesis in Chloroplasts.- i) Evidence for Formation of Carotenoids in Chloroplasts.- D. Chloroplast Quinones.- E. Polyprenols.- F. Sterols.- G. Regulation of Terpenoid Synthesis.- 1. In Developing Chloroplasts.- 2. In Mature Chloroplasts.- 3. Loss of Regulation during Changes of Chloroplasts into Chromoplasts..- H. Literature.