Peppers

Dr. Prasad S. Variyar, formerly at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), served as the Senior Scientist, in the Food Technology Division, BARC, Mumbai India and Professor at the HomiBhabha National Institute, Mumbai India. Significant contributions include development of newer radiation processed minimally processed convenience foods, novel dosimeters for determining absorbed gamma radiation dose and newer biodegradable packaging for food irradiation applications. He has over 150 publications in high impact international peer reviewed journals and has three patents and ten technology transfers to his credit. Inder Pal Singh is a Professor of Natural Products Chemistry at National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), SAS Nagar. His research interests include isolation of bioactive molecules from natural sources, biomimetic synthesis of bioactive natural products and their analogs for therapeutic areas such as HIV, cancer, and leishmaniasis, and standardization of herbal/Ayurvedic formulations using various analytical techniques. Inder Pal has been awarded Honorary Visiting Professorship of Shizuoka University, Japan, and served as Dean - Pharmacy, Maharaja Ranjit Singh Punjab Technical University, Bathinda. He has over 165 publications and is co-author of two books. Vanshika Adiani, PhD is a Scientist working at Food Technology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai, India. Major focus of her work is in the field of food processing, safety and security. She has developed rapid detection techniques for assessment of microbial quality in minimally processed fruits, colorimetric time temperature indicator devices for easy visual determination of spoilage of minimally processed fruits. Her current research include developing methods and prototype for detection of spice adulteration with various synthetic non-permitted dyes using machine learning tools. Dr. Penna Suprasanna is the Director, Amity Centre for Nuclear Biotechnology, Amity University Maharashtra, Mumbai,India; Former-Head of the Nuclear Agriculture & Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India. His research interests are agricultural biotechnology, climate-smart agriculture, molecular plant stress physiology, and nuclear agriculture. He has served as an expert with International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna and Member, Food Security Committee, Board of Research in Nuclear Sciences, DAE. He has more than 380 research publications to his credit and several edited books.

Preface xii

The Editors xiii

List of Contributors xiv

Chapter 1 Peppers—an Overview on The Bioactives and their Nutritional, Functional Properties and Post-Harvest Processing 1

Prasad S. Variyar and Penna Suprasanna

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Capsicum 2

1.3 Chemical Composition 3

1.4 Capsaicinoids and Carotenes: Biosynthesis and Genetic Regulation 4

1.5 Quality Evaluation of Peppers 6

1.6 Effect of Pre- and Post-Harvest Factors on the Quality of Pepper Fruits 7

1.7 Nutritional and Functional Properties 9

1.8 Medicinal and Health Benefits 9

1.8.1 Anti-Inflammatory Effects 9

1.8.2 Cardiovascular Health 9

1.8.3 Immunity Booster 10

1.8.4 Alleviates Prostate Cancer 10

1.8.5 Prevention of Stomach Ulcers 10

1.8.6 Reduces Risk of Type 2 Diabetes and Obesity 10

1.8.7 Antirhinitis Agent 10

1.9 Novel and Diverse Products of Pepper 10

1.10 Post-Harvest Processing for Improved Production of Bioactive Compounds 11

1.11 Conclusions 12

References 12

Chapter 2 Genetic Diversity for Fruit Quality Traits in Chilli (Capsicum spp.) 16

Pavani, N., Satyaprakash Barik, Naresh Ponnam and Madhavi Reddy K

2.1 Introduction 16

2.2 Pepper Diversity, Domestication and Conservation 17

2.3 Hybridization and Crossability 19

2.4 Genetic Resources and Breeding of Peppers for Industrial Use 19

2.5 Conclusions 21

References 21

Chapter 3 Contribution of Interspecific Hybridization for Improvement in Quality and Productivity in Pepper 25

Kazım Mavi

3.1 Introduction 25

3.2 Systematic Advances in Interspecific Hybridization 27

3.3 Problems and Solutions in Interspecific Hybridization 30

3.3.1 Hybridization Barriers 30

3.3.2 Post-Fertilization Abnormalities and Embryo Rescue 30

3.3.3 Infertility (Sterility) in Interspecific Hybrids 31

3.4 Detection of Interspecific Hybrids by Molecular Techniques 33

3.5 Quality Development Through Interspecific Hybridization 33

3.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 35

References 36

Chapter 4 Chemical Diversity and Functionality of Capsaicinoids 40

Inder Pal Singh, Nobuyuki Mase, Ankur Kumar Tanwar, Neha Sengar and Olivia Chatterjee

4.1 Introduction 41

4.1.1 Capsaicinoids 41

4.1.2 Capsiates (Natural Capsaicin Analogues) 42

4.1.3 Biosynthesis of Capsaicinoids 43

4.1.4 Capsaicin 43

4.1.5 Metabolism of Capsaicin 44

4.2 Pharmacological Activity of Capsaicinoids 45

4.2.1 Anti-Inflammatory Activity 45

4.2.2 Antidiabetic Activity 46

4.2.3 Antioxidant Activity 47

4.2.4 CNS Activity 47

4.2.5 Cardiovascular Activity 48

4.2.6 Chemopreventive Activity 48

4.2.7 Hypocholesterolemic and Hypolipidemic Activity 49

4.2.8 Antiulcer Property 50

4.3 Structure Activity Relationship (SAR) of Capsaicinoids 50

4.3.1 Substitution in A Region 50

4.3.2 Substitution in B Region 53

4.3.3 Substitution in C Region 55

4.4 Conclusion 59

References 60

Chapter 5 Analytical Methods for Capsaicinoids and Other Bioactive Metabolites 65

Inder Pal Singh, Dharmistha Rajput and Debanjan Chatterjee 5.1 Introduction 65

5.1 Introduction 65

5.2 Extraction Techniques 67

5.3.1 Chromatographic Techniques 71

5.3.2 Spectroscopic Techniques 74

5.3.3 Hyphenated Techniques 76

5.4 Summary 78

References 78

Chapter 6 Transcriptomics of Chili Pepper Fruit with Emphasis on the Carotenoid Biosynthetic Pathway 80

Maria Guadalupe Villa-Rivera, Octavio Martínez and Neftalí Ochoa-Alejo

6.1 Introduction 80

6.2 Applications of Transcriptomic Analysis in Chili Pepper 81

6.2.1 Transcriptomic Analysis in the Study of Bioactive Compounds 83

6.3 Transcriptomics and Transcriptional Regulation of the Carotenoid

Biosynthetic Pathway 84

6.3.1 Carotenoid Biosynthesis Pathway in Chili Pepper 84

6.3.2 Transcriptional Regulation of Carotenoid Biosynthetic Pathway 87

6.4 Gene Functional Networks of Carotenoid Biosynthetic Pathway in Chili Pepper 88

6.4.1 Time Expression Profiles of Genes Involved in Carotenoid Biosynthesis in Chili Pepper 88

6.4.2 Location of Putative Binding Sites of Transcription Factors Candidates on Structural Genes 92

6.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 93

References 94

Chapter 7 Chemistry and Post-Harvest Processing Technologies of Peppers (Capsicum spp.) 98

Filipe Kayodè Felisberto dos Santos, Rayssa Ribeiro, Karine Sayuri Lima Miki, Barbara Elisabeth Teixeira-Costa and Valdir Florêncio da Veiga Júnior

7.1 Introduction 98

7.2 Peppers and Their Chemical Complexity 99

7.2.1 Capsaicinoids 99

7.2.2 Carotenoids 100

7.2.3 Flavonoids 102

7.3 Update on Peppers’ Medicinal Properties and Applications 102

7.4 Physical, Chemical and Non-Destructive Post-Harvest Technologies 105

7.4.1 Dehydration 105

7.4.2 Freezing 106

7.4.3 Modified Atmosphere Packaging 106

7.4.4 Application of Edible Coatings 107

7.5 Trends and Perspectives 108

References 109

Chapter 8 Capsaicin and Capsaicinoids—Sources, Characteristics, Isolation, Food and Medical Uses 113

Talía Hernández-Pérez and Octavio Paredes-López

8.1 Introduction 113

8.2 Main Characteristics of Capsaicinoids 114

8.3 Pungency 115

8.4 Non-Pungent Compounds 116

8.5 Nutraceutical and Medical Potential of Capsaicin 117

8.5.1 Antiobesity Effect 117

8.5.2 Analgesic Potential 119

8.5.3 Anticancer Activity 120

8.5.4 Urinary System Disorders 120

8.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 121

8.7 Acknowledgements 122

References 122

Chapter 9 Medicinal Bioactive Secondary Metabolites of Indian Chili (Capsicum sp.) 126

Debosree Ghosh, Partha Sarathi Singha and Ramkrishna Ghosh

9.1 Introduction 126

9.2 Secondary Metabolites as Bioactive Phytocompounds 127

9.3 Secondary Metabolites of Indian Chilies and Their Medicinal Properties 128

9.3.1 Alkaloids from Chili 129

9.3.2 Terpenoids 129

9.3.3 Terpenoid-Alkaloids 130

9.3.4 Polyphenols 130

9.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 133

9.5 Acknowledgement 134

References 134

Chapter 10 Recent Trends in Pepper-Derived Products for Food Matrices 138

Somnath Basak and Rekha S. Singhal

10.1 Introduction 138

10.2 Oleoresins and Essential Oils 139

10.3 Inclusion Complexes 141

10.4 Essential Oil–Based Emulsions 144

10.5 Essential Oil–Based Powder 145

10.6 Pepper-Based Beverage 145

10.7 Fermented Whole Peppers 146

10.8 Pepper-Based Protein 150

10.9 Summary 150

References 151

Chapter 11 Capsaicinoids from Sustainable Capsicum Production for Nutraceutical Development � 155

Mursleen Yasin, Michelle Donovan-Mak, Zhong-Hua Chen and Sunil K. Panchal

11.1 Introduction 155

11.2 The Genus Capsicum 156

11.3 Global Production of Capsicums and Chillies 157

11.4 The Science of Pungency in Capsicum 158

11.5 Capsaicinoids 159

11.6 Production of Capsaicinoids 160

11.7 Factors Affecting Capsaicinoid Production 161

11.7.1 Genetics 162

11.7.2 Light 163

11.7.3 Water Availability 163

11.7.4 Mineral Nutrients 164

11.7.5 Temperature 164

11.8 Growth and Developmental Stages 164

11.9 Properties of Capsaicinoids and Capsinoids 165

11.10 Extraction of Capsaicinoids 166

11.10.1 Methods of Extraction 166

11.11 Properties of Capsaicin 168

11.12 Postharvest Technology to Increase Production of Capsaicinoids 169

11.13 Metabolomics in Capsicums 170

11.13.1 Carotenoids 171

11.13.2 Phenolics 172

11.13.3 Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) 172

11.14 Solutions Toward Reducing Capsicum and Chilli Waste 173

11.15 Sustainable Use of Waste of Capsicum Crops 173

11.16 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 174

References 174

Chapter 12 Post-Harvest Handling and Processing of Green and Red Indian Chillies 184

A.J. Sachin, P. Preethi, S.V.R. Reddy and P. Naresh

12.1 Introduction 185

12.2 Green Chillies 185

12.2.1 Harvesting, Packaging, and Transportation 185

12.2.2 Processing and Value Addition 186

12.3 Dry Chillies 187

12.3.1 Drying 187

12.3.2 Packaging and Storage 190

12.3.3 Sorting and Grading 191

12.4 Conclusion 191

References 191

Chapter 13 Influence of Packaging on Postharvest Quality of Peppers 194

Komal Sonawane and Ramanand Jagtap

13.1 Introduction 194

13.2 Pepper Packaging 195

13.2.1 Pepper Characteristics 195

13.2.2 Contamination and Flavor Preservation in Pepper Packaging: From Harvesting to Processing 196

13.2.3 Oxygen Interaction with Packaging Material 196

13.2.4 Interaction of Pepper Ingredients with Packaging Material 197

13.3 Dependability of Oxygen Permeation on Structure of Polymeric Packaging Material 198

13.4 Types of Packaging Material 199

13.5 Recent Advances in Pepper Packaging 202

13.5.1 Single-Layer and Double-Layer Packaging 202

13.5.2 Multilayer Packaging 203

13.6 Disposal Challenges for Multilayer System 204

13.7 Active Packaging Systems .206

13.8 Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) 206

13.9 Sustainable and Eco-Friendly Packaging 207

13.9.1 Biocompostable Packaging 208

13.10 Intelligent Packaging 208

13.11 Innovative Packaging Designs 209

13.12 Nanohybrid-Based Biocomposites 210

13.13 Packaging Design and Structure 211

13.14 Storage Duration 211

13.15 Conclusions 212

References 213

Chapter 14 Pepper Fixed Oil: Novel Source of Oil-Based Nutraceuticals 219

Ajay W. Tumaney, Vallamkondu Manasa, Palak Daga and Salony Raghunath Vaishnav

14.1 Introduction 219

14.1.1 Overview of Pepper Production 219

14.1.2 Health Benefits of Pepper Oil 220

14.2 Pepper Oils 223

14.2.1 Total Oil 224

14.2.2 Essential Oil 225

14.2.3 Fixed Oil 225

14.2.4 Oleoresins 226

14.3 Oil Nutraceuticals 226

14.3.1 Polyphenols 227

14.3.2 Tocopherols 227

14.3.3 Phytosterols 228

14.3.4 Antioxidants 229

14.4 Conclusion 230

References 230

Chapter 15 Effect of Newer Non-Thermal Processing 235

Admajith M. Kaimal, Amrutha M. Kaimal and Rekha S. Singhal

15.1 Introduction 235

15.1.1 A Brief Overview of Capsicum Production 236

15.1.2 Post-Harvest Scenario and Losses 236

15.2 Impact of Paprika Constituents During Storage 237

15.2.1 Proximate Composition 237

15.2.2 Vitamins 239

15.2.3 Polyphenols 239

15.2.4 Carotenoids 239

15.2.5 Capsaicinoids 240

15.3 Non-Thermal Processing of Paprika 240

15.3.1 High-Pressure Processing (HPP)� 241

15.3.2 Pulsed Electric Field Processing (PEF) 244

15.3.3 Pulsed Light Processing (PL) 245

15.3.4 Ozone 246

15.3.5 Non-Thermal Plasma 248

15.3.6 Irradiation 250

15.3.7 Ultrasound 251

15.3.8 Other Novel Technologies 251

15.3.9 Synergistic Technologies 252

15.4 Effect of Non-Thermal Process on Paprika Constituents 253

15.4.1 Proximate Composition 253

15.4.2 Polyphenols 256

15.4.3 Carotenoids 257

15.4.4 Capsaicinoids 257

15.5 Food Safety and Regulatory Challenges 257

15.6 Future Prospects 258

15.7 Conclusions � 258

References 258

Chapter 16 Adulteration and Authenticity Testing of Chilli 264

B. Sasikumar

16.1 Introduction 264

16.2 Adulterants in Chilli 265

16.3 Techniques for Adulterant Detection 265

16.3.1 Physical and Sensing Methods 265

16.3.2 Analytical Methods 267

16.3.3 Other Methods 272

16.4 Chilli—an Adulterant .273

16.5 Future Perspectives and Conclusion 274

References 274

Index 281