Emotion in Games (eBook)

Foreword 6
Preface 8
Contents 11
Contributors 13
Part I Theory 16
1 The Aesthetic Motives of Play 17
Introduction 17
Cautions About Asking `Why' 18
Uncertainty as the Foundation of Play 19
General Motives 20
The Social Motive 20
The Thrill-Seeking Motive 21
The Curiosity Motive 22
Functional Motives 23
The Victory Motive 23
The Problem-Solving Motive 24
The Luck Motive 25
The Acquisition Motive 25
Representational Motives 26
The Narrative Motive 27
The Horror Motive 27
The Agency Motive 28
Conclusion 29
References 31
2 Affect Channel Model of Evaluation in the Context of Digital Games 35
Introduction 35
Background 36
Model Details 37
Building Blocks 37
Organization 40
Affect Channels 41
The Model 42
Pre-stimulus Level (L0) 42
Reflexes (L1) 43
Survival Evaluation (L2) 44
Evaluation of Predicted Consequences (L3) 45
Conceptual Evaluations and Further (L4+) 46
Final Words 48
References 49
3 Affective Involvement in Digital Games 52
Introduction 52
The Bottom-Up Experience Triangle 53
The Player Involvement Model 54
A Quantitative Perspective 57
Experimental Design 57
Experiment 1: Game Story 57
Experiment 2: Social Setting 58
Experiment 3: Game Controller 58
Measures 59
Results 61
Impact of Manipulations on Player Involvement 61
Experiment 1: Game Story 61
Experiment 2: Social Setting 62
Experiment 3: Game Controller 63
Combining Affective Involvement 63
Experiment 1: Game Story 64
Narrative Involvement and Affective Involvement 64
Ludic Involvement and Affective Involvement 64
Experiment 2: Social Setting 64
Shared Involvement and Affective Involvement 65
Experiment 3: Game Controller 65
Kinesthetic Involvement and Affective Involvement 65
Spatial Involvement and Affective Involvement 65
Conclusion 66
References 68
Part II Emotion Modelling and Affect-Driven Adaptation 70
4 Multimodal Sensing in Affective Gaming 71
Introduction 72
Affective Gaming 74
Sources of Affect 76
Vision-Based 77
Facial Expressions 77
Body Expressivity 80
Haptics 82
Wearable Games 83
Affective Evaluation of Players 84
Affective Interaction in Games 85
Existing Commercial Games 86
Affective Gaming Scenarios and Challenges 87
Affective Gaming Scenarios 87
Affective Gaming Challenges 89
Applications of Affective Games 91
Conclusions 91
References 92
5 Emotion Modelling via Speech Content and Prosody: In Computer Games and Elsewhere 97
Introduction 97
Emotion Modelling 97
Emotion and Games 98
Speech Content 99
Speech Recognition and Emotion 99
Textual Features 100
Tokenisation and Tagging 100
Vector Space Modelling 101
Zero-Resource Modelling 101
Learning 102
Prosodic and Acoustic Modelling 102
Speaker Separation and Denoising 102
Prosodic and Acoustic Features 102
Zero-Resource Modelling 104
Learning 104
Integration and Embedding 105
Fusion 105
Available Tools 105
Data and Benchmarks 106
Distribution 106
Confidence Measures 107
Adaptation and Self-Training 107
Encoding and Standards 109
Summary and White Spots 109
Summary 109
White Spots 110
References 111
6 Comparing Two Commercial Brain Computer Interfaces for Serious Games and Virtual Environments 115
What Are Brain-Computer Interfaces? 115
Neuroimaging Techniques for BCI Systems 116
Electroencephalography-Based BCI (EEG-Based BCI) 117
Stages of a BCI System 118
BCI Paradigms 119
Active BCI 119
Reactive BCI 119
Passive BCI 120
BCI and Serious Games 120
BCI Games for Research 121
BCI Games for Medical Applications 121
Commercial BCI Games 122
Investigating Commercial BCI Systems for Serious Games and Virtual Environments 122
Comparison of Serious Games Using Emotiv 123
The `BrainMaze' Game 123
Roma Nova 124
Participants and Experimental Procedure 124
Results 124
Comparison of Serious Games Using NeuroSky 125
Roma Nova 125
Tetris 126
Participants and Experimental Procedure 126
Results 126
Comparison of Emotiv and NeuroSky 127
Conclusions and Limitations 127
References 128
7 Psychophysiology in Games 130
Introduction 130
Why Physiology in Games? 132
Heart Activity 133
Electrodermal Activity 133
Sensor Technology 134
Annotating Physiology with Psychological Labels 136
Models of Psychophysiology in Games 137
Physiological Signal Processing 138
Feature Extraction 138
Feature Selection 139
Modeling Psychophysiology 139
Adapting the Game to Affect Models 140
Psychophysiology Beyond Games 141
Intelligent Tutoring Systems 141
Health Technologies 141
Limitations of Physiology 142
Conclusions 143
References 143
8 Emotion and Attitude Modeling for Non-player Characters 149
Introduction 149
Emotion Modeling 150
Theory on Emotions 150
Basic Emotions 151
Multidimensional Models 151
Appraisal Theory 152
Computational Model of Emotions 152
Expression of Emotions 154
Data-Driven Models 155
Literature-Based Models 155
Attitude Modeling 156
Theory on Attitudes 156
Computational Model of Attitudes 157
Expression of Attitude 158
Conclusion 160
References 160
9 Emotion-Driven Level Generation 165
Introduction 165
Emotion-Driven Level Generation 166
A Taxonomy of Emotion-Driven Level Generators 168
First-Order vs. Second-Order Level Generators 168
Direct vs. Indirect Level Generators 169
Exemplifying Emotion-Driven Level Generation 169
Super Mario Bros: First-Order, Direct Level Generation 170
MiniDungeons: First-Order, Indirect Level Generation 170
Sonancia: Second-Order, Direct Level Generation 172
Sentient Sketchbook: Second-Order, Indirect Level Generation 172
Discussion 173
Future Vision and Conclusion 174
References 175
10 Emotion-Driven Narrative Generation 177
Introduction 177
Background 178
Narrative 178
Story Generation and Interactive Narrative 179
Suspense 180
Dramatis 181
Reformulating Gerrig and Bernardo 181
Dramatis Algorithm and Inputs 183
Time-Slices 184
Scripts 184
Planning Operators 185
Predicting Negative Outcomes 185
Measuring Reader Salience 186
Generating Escape Plans 186
Future of Emotion-Driven Story Generation 187
Concluding Remarks 188
References 189
11 Game Cinematography: From Camera Control to PlayerEmotions 191
Introduction 191
Camera Control in Computer Games 193
Automatic Camera Control 195
Story-Driven Interactive Cinematography 197
Camera and Player Interaction 198
Affective Cameras 200
Future Directions in Game Cinematography 201
Conclusion 202
References 202
12 From Sinewaves to Physiologically-Adaptive Soundscapes: The Evolving Relationship Between Sound and Emotion in Video Games 206
The Power of Sound to Evoke Emotion During Video Gameplay 206
8-Bit Affect: Sound and Emotion in Video Games' Formative Years 207
Audio Technology and Its Sound Design and Composition Affordances 207
Evoking Player Emotion Via Sound in the 8, 16 and 32-Bit Eras 211
The Contemporary Sound-Emotion Relationship 212
Modern Technical Developments in Games Audio Technology 212
Contemporary Approaches to Affective Experience in Gaming via Sound 213
Psychophysiology and Biometric Game Control Interfaces 216
Principles and Mechanics 217
Utilising Biofeedback to Connect Player-Emotion to Game Sound 218
The Future of Sound and Emotion in Video Games 219
References 221
13 Emotional Appraisal Engines for Games 224
Introduction 224
Why Are Model-Based NPC Emotions Rare in Commercial Games? 227
Emotional Appraisal Engines as Plug-in Modules 230
Integrating Emotional Appraisal Engines with NPC Control 231
Simulating Emotions in Semantic Worlds 232
Simulating Emotions in Phaser, a Javascript Game Engine 233
Simulating Emotions in Cognitive Agent Programming 233
Simulating Emotions in Narrative Generation 234
Appraisal Engines Enable Novel Gameplays and Genres 234
Action-Adventure Games (e.g., Legend of Zelda, The Witcher) 235
Fighting and First-Person Shooter Games (e.g., Mortal Combat, Doom) 235
Real-Time Strategy Games (RTS) (e.g., Age of Empires, Warcraft) 236
Role-Playing Games (RPGs) (e.g., Baldur's Gate, Skyrim) 237
Arcade and Platform Games (Pac-Man, Mario Bros) 237
Serious Games 237
Final Remarks 238
References 239
Part III Applications 242
14 Emotion and Body-Based Games: Overview and Opportunities 243
Introduction 243
The Body as a Means for Expressing Emotions 244
Theory 244
Practice 246
The Body as a Means for Biasing Emotions 251
Theory 251
Practice 252
The Body as a Means for Social Bonding 253
Theory 253
Practice 255
Future Work 256
Improving Sensing of Emotional Cues 256
Improving Body-Based Game Evaluation for Social Games 257
Conclusions 258
References 258
15 Games for Treating and Diagnosing Post Traumatic StressDisorder 264
Introduction 264
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 265
Games for Mental Health and PTSD 265
Virtual Reality Therapy for Treating PTSD 266
StartleMart: A Virtual Scenario for Assessing Stress Response in PTSD 267
Assessment of Physiological Arousal, Subjective Stress Response, and PTSD Symptomatology 268
Clinical Trials Using StartleMart 269
Participants and Inclusion Criteria 269
Collected Features 270
Patient Profile Features 270
Session Features 270
Behavioral Features 272
Self-Reported Stress Response Features 272
SC Stress Response Features 272
Experimental Setup and Protocol 274
Equipment and Configuration 274
Experimental Protocol 274
Results 275
Predicting PTSD Severity 276
Discussion 277
Conclusion 278
References 279
16 Understanding and Designing for Conflict Learning Through Games 282
Introduction 282
Conflict Education and Games 283
Village Voices 284
Competitive Collaboration 285
Local Familiar Multiplayer 286
Learning Around the Game 287
Reimagining the Real 288
Persistence 289
Case Study 289
Conflict Experiences and Skills Become More Nuanced Over Time 290
In-Game Conflicts Do Not Always Engender Learning Moments 290
Learning Moments Are Shared, Communicated, and Emotionally Challenging 291
Discussion and Conclusion 291
References 293
17 Games Robots Play: Once More, with Feeling 295
Requirements for Social Game-Playing Robots 295
Robots as Play Companions 298
Robots and Digitised Games 301
Robots and Augmented Reality Game Experiences 304
Key Research Issues 305
References 307
18 Lovotics: Love and Sex with Robots 309
Introduction 309
The First Crude Sex Robot 312
Lovotics 314
The Formulation of Love 314
The Probability of Love 315
The Artificial Endocrine System 315
The Affective State Transmission System 316
The Kissenger 316
Design Features 319
Design Flow 321
Input Kiss Sensing 321
Control and Wireless 322
Output Kiss Actuation 322
Communication 322
The Ethical and Legal Debate 326
Robot Love 329
Predictions 330
Robot Sex 330
Robot Love 332
Conclusion 332
References 333
Index 335