Readings in Human-Computer Interaction (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Readings in Human-Computer Interaction: Toward the Year 2000 4
Copyright Page 5
Table of 
6 
Brief Contents 7
Preface 12
Acknowledgements 20
Part I: Introduction to Human-Computer Interaction 24
REFERENCES 25
THE PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERYDAY THINGS 28
Case A: Iterative Design of an Information Kiosk 46
REFERENCES 47
VIDEOS 47
Chapter 1. Historical and Intellectual Perspective 58
THE MEMEX 58
MAN-COMPUTER SYMBIOSIS 59
TIME SHARING AND NETWORKING 61
SKETCHPAD 61
INTERACTIVE COMPUTER GRAPHICS 61
MEMEX REVISITED: TWO VISIONS OF AUGMENTING HUMAN INTELLECT 62
HUMAN FACTORS, PSYCHOLOGY, AND THE DESIGN OF HUMAN COMPUTER DIALOGUES 63
THE PERSONAL WORKSTATION 65
THE DYNABOOK 65
THE PERSONAL COMPUTER 66
THE ROLE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE 66
MODELING USERS AND INTERFACES 67
EXPANDING RESEARCH FRONTIERS 67
A DEVELOPING COMMUNITY OF SCHOLARS 67
REFERENCES 68
VIDEOS 70
Case B: The Emergence of Graphical User Interfaces 72
THE XEROX STAR 72
THE APPLE LISA 73
THE APPLE MACINTOSH 73
CONCLUSION 74
REFERENCES 74
VIDEOS 75
The Xerox Star: A Retrospective 76
What Star is 76
Direct manipulation 79
History of Star development 85
Lessons from experience 90
Acknowledgments 91
Further reading 91
References 91
Part II: The Process of Developing Interactive Systems 94
REFERENCES 94
Chapter 2. 
96 
DESIGN AND EVALUATION CONSIDERED TOGETHER 96
THE DISCIPLINE OF HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION DESIGN 97
EVALUATING SYSTEMS AND THEIR USER INTERFACES 103
THEORY-BASED DESIGN 110
PRESERVING DESIGN RATIONALE 111
VIDEOS 114
HOW TO DESIGN USABLE SYSTEMS 116
ABSTRACT 116
INTRODUCTION 116
STARTING POINTS 137
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 138
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 138
TRADEMARKS 139
REFERENCES 139
GETTING TO KNOW USERS AND THEIR TASKS 145
2.1 GETTING IN TOUCH WITH USERS 145
2.2 LEARNING ABOUT THE USERS' TASKS 146
2.3 USING THE TASKS IN DESIGN 148
Tools and Techniques for Creative Design 151
ANIMATION 154
THEATER 154
ARCHITECTURE 155
INDUSTRIAL DESIGN 156
INFORMATION DISPLAY 156
INTERFACE METAPHORS 159
OBSERVING REAL-WORLD TASKS AND ENVIRONMENTS 160
USING VIDEO TO PROTOTYPE USER INTERFACES 165
Abstract: 165
Deciding what interfaces to build: 165
Developing storyboards and flipbooks: 165
Visualizing the interaction: 166
Animating interaction techniques: 166
Mixing media for more complex prototypes: 168
Lessons learned: 169
Advantages: 169
Disadvantages: 169
Summary 169
Working with Interface Metaphors 170
FUNCTIONAL DEFINITION 171
IDENTIFY USERS' PROBLEMS 172
METAPHOR GENERATION 172
Evaluating Interface Metaphors 172
AMOUNT OF STRUCTURE 172
APPLICABILITY OF STRUCTURE 173
Summary 174
References 174
REPRESENTABILITY 173
METHODOLOGY MATTERS: DOING RESEARCH IN THE BEHAVIORAL and SOCIAL SCIENCES 175
SUBSTANTIVE DOMAIN 176
Usability Inspection Methods: Executive Summary 193
CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN 176
METHODOLOGICAL DOMAIN 176
RESEARCH STRATEGIES: CHOOSING A SETTING FOR A STUDY 178
QUADRANT I: THE FIELD STRATEGIES 180
QUADRANT II: THE EXPERIMENTAL STRATEGIES 180
QUADRANT III: THE RESPONDENT STRATEGIES 181
QUADRANT IV: THE THEORETICAL STRATEGIES 181
SOME STRATEGIC ISSUES 182
STUDY DESIGN, COMPARISON TECHNIQUES, AND VALIDITY 182
COMPARISON TECHNIQUES: ASSESSING ASSOCIATIONS AND DIFFERENCES 183
RANDOMIZATION AND "TRUE EXPERIMENTS" 184
SAMPLING, ALLOCATION AND STATISTICAL INFERENCE 185
VALIDITY OF FINDINGS 186
POTENTIAL CLASSES OF MEASURES IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 187
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF TYPES OF MEASURES 189
TECHNIQUES FOR MANIPULATING VARIABLES 190
CONCLUDING COMMENTS ABOUT THE RESEARCH PROCESS 191
REFERENCES 192
Usability Inspection Methods: Executive Summary 193
1.1 Definition of Usability Inspection 193
1.2 Inspection Objectives 194
1.3 Inspection Methods 195
1.4 Inspection Methodology Issues 196
1.5 Usability Inspection and the Usability Engineering Lifecycle 198
1.6 Research Directions 202
1.7 Conclusions 204
USING VIDEO IN THE BNR USABILITY LAB 205
Abstract 205
How Video Helps Us Achieve our Goals 206
Co-Discovery Learning 206
U-Test 207
Conclusions 208
References: 208
Chapter 3. Considering Work Contexts in Design 210
TWO CASE STUDIES 211
FROM HUMAN FACTORS TO HUMAN ACTORS 212
MAXIMIZING USER INVOLVEMENT: PARTICIPATORY APPROACHES TO DESIGN 212
ETHNOGRAPHY AND INTERACTION ANALYSIS 214
CONTEXTUAL INQUIRY 214
THE INFORMATION SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE 215
LABORATORY STUDIES AND FIELD STUDIES 216
REFERENCES 216
LEARNING FROM NOTES: Organizational Issues in Groupware Implementation 220
ABSTRACT 220
KEYWORDS 220
INTRODUCTION 220
RESEARCH SITE AND METHODS 221
RESEARCH RESULTS 221
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 227
REFERENCES 227
From Human Factors to Human Actors: The Role of Psychology and Human-Computer Interaction Studies in System Design 228
A True Story 228
A Question of Perspective(s) 229
The Field of Human Factors and Human-Computer Interaction: Some Background 231
Beyond Current Conceptions of HCI 232
Conclusion: HCI in System Design 235
Acknowledgments 236
References 236
Cooperative Design: Techniques and Experiences From the Scandinavian Scene 238
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 239
CASE: THE AT PROJECT 240
FUTURE WORKSHOPS 242
ORGANIZATIONAL GAMES 243
MOCK-UP DESIGN 244
GENERAL CONDITIONS 245
CONCLUDING REMARKS 246
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 246
REFERENCES 247
PARTICIPATORY DESIGN OF A PORTABLE TORQUE-FEEDBACK DEVICE 248
ABSTRACT 248
KEYWORDS 248
INTRODUCTION 248
CONTEXT 248
PARTICIPATORY DESIGN EXPERIENCE 249
FROM SCENARIO TO PROTOTYPE 251
CONCLUSIONS 253
DISCLAIMER 254
REFERENCES 254
Understanding Practice: Video as a Medium for Reflection and Design (Excerpt) 256
Applying Video Analysis to System Design 260
Reflection and Design 261
Acknowledgments 262
Conducting and Analyzing a Contextual Interview 264
PRINCIPLES OF THE CONTEXTUAL INQUIRY PROCESS 264
CONDUCTING A CONTEXTUAL INTERVIEW 268
ANALYZING CONTEXTUAL INQUIRY INFORMATION 271
USING CONTEXTUAL INQUIRY THROUGHOUT THE SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT CYCLE 274
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 275
REFERENCES 275
Controversies About Computerization and the Organization of White Collar Work 277
ABSTRACT 277
THE IMPORTANCE OF WORK 277
THE RELEVANCE OF HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES: A SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION? 278
THE TRANSFORMATION OF OFFICE WORK 279
CHANGES IN COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY 279
COMMON MODES OF ANALYSIS: UTOPIAN AND SOCIAL REALIST 280
CONTROL AND COORDINATION ISSUES 282
SKILL AND SUPPORT FOR COMPUTERIZATION 286
THE INTEGRATION OF COMPUTING INTO WORK 287
NEW FORMS OF WORK ORGANIZATION 290
CONCLUSIONS 291
REFERENCES 292
Chapter 4. Software Development Contexts 296
THREE DEVELOPMENT CONTEXTS 296
THE INFLUENCE OF SOFTWARE ENGINEERING 297
INTEGRATING HCI AND SOFTWARE ENGINEERING 298
INTEGRATING HCI AND SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT 299
COST JUSTIFICATIONS FOR ITERATIVE, USER-CENTERED DESIGN 299
THE MULTIDISCIPLINARY AND MULTIFACETED NATURE OF DESIGN 300
REFERENCES 300
A Spiral Model of Software Development and Enhancement 304
Evaluation 312
Background on software process models 304
The spiral model 307
Using the spiral model 308
Evaluation 312
Acknowledgments 314
References 314
Further reading 315
Interactive Systems: Bridging the Gaps Between Developers and Users 316
Identifying developers and users 317
Three development contexts 318
Factors influencing interactive systems development 320
Focusing on users: Opportunities, obstacles, and mediators 321
Acknowledgments 325
References 325
Further reading 326
Interdisciplinary Cooperation 327
Chapter 5. 
336 
WHAT ARE DEVELOPMENT TOOLS? 336
CONVENTIONAL DEVELOPMENT TOOLS 337
NOVEL APPROACHES TO DEVELOPMENT TOOLS 339
OTHER SOURCES 341
REFERENCES 342
VIDEOS 343
State of the Art in User Interface Software Tools 346
INTRODUCTION 346
WHY USER INTERFACES ARE HARD TO BUILD 346
OVERVIEW OF USER INTERFACE SOFTWARE TOOLS 348
WINDOWING SYSTEMS 350
TOOLKITS 354
VIRTUAL TOOLKITS 356
EVALUATING USER INTERFACE TOOLS 361
RESEARCH ISSUES 362
CONCLUSIONS 363
REFERENCES 364
Lessons Learned from SUIT, the Simple User Interface Toolkit 367
INTRODUCTION 367
DESIGN APPROACH 368
ARCHITECTURE 368
OUR EXPERIENCE WITH USERS 374
CONCLUSIONS 378
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 378
REFERENCES 378
Garnet Comprehensive Support for Graphical, Highly Interactive User Interfaces 380
Coverage 381
The Garnet Toolkit 382
The interface builder 390
Acknowledgments 393
References 393
ITS: A Tool for Rapidly Developing Interactive Applications 396
1. 
396 
2. RELATED WORK 396
3. THE ITS ARCHITECTURE 397
4. THE ACTION LAYER 399
5. THE DIALOG LAYER 400
6. THE RULE LAYER 402
7. THE STYLE PROGRAM LAYER 405
8. THE EXPO 92 VISITOR INFORMATION SYSTEM 406
9. DISCUSSION 408
CONCLUSIONS 411
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 411
REFERENCES 411
GROUPKITA Groupware Toolkit for Building Real-Time Conferencing Applications 413
ABSTRACT 413
KEYWORDS 413
INTRODUCTION 413
TOOLKIT DESIGN REQUIREMENTS 414
GROUPKIT 415
BUILDING AN EXAMPLE APPLICATION 418
FUTURE WORK 419
REFERENCES 419
PART III: Interacting with Computers 422
REFERENCES 423
VIDEO 423
A TAXONOMY AND RULE BASE FOR THE SELECTION OF INTERACTION STYLES 424
1. Introduction 424
2. Taxonomy of interaction styles 424
3. Choosing an interaction style 430
4. Conclusions 432
Chapter 6. Vision, Graphic Design, and Visual Display 434
FROM SENSATION TO PERCEPTION 434
GRAPHIC DESIGN FOR EFFECTIVE VISUAL COMMUNICATION 436
PRINCIPLES FOR EFFECTIVE VISUALIZATION 438
INFORMATION VISUALIZATIONS SOFTWARE 439
DISPLAY METHODS AND TECHNOLOGIES 440
CONCLUDING REMARKS 442
VIDEOS 445
Principles of Effective Visual Communication for Graphical User Interface Design 448
Abstract 448
Introduction 448
GUIs and Graphic Design 448
Design Considerations for Successful GUIs 448
Visible Language 449
Principles of User Interface Design 449
Principles of User Interface Design 449
Consistency 449
Relationships 450
Navigability 450
Principle 2: Economize! (or Make Do with What You Have) 450
Making Sense of Symbolism 452
Multiple Views 452
Color Terms and Concepts 452
Color Design Principles 453
Color Organization 453
Color Economy 453
Color Communication 454
Color Emphasis 454
Color Interactions 455
Color Symbolism 455
Conclusion 455
Acknowledgments 455
Bibliography 455
Author's Biography 456
Figures 456
Color Graphics—Blessing or Ballyhoo (Excerpt) 465
BRINGING ICONS TO LIFE 467
ABSTRACT 467
KEYWORDS 467
INTRODUCTION 467
MOTIVATION 468
ITERATIVE DESIGN 468
EMPIRICAL EVALUATION 469
INTERFACE ISSUES 471
APPENDIX: A NOTE ON THE IMPLEMENTATION 472
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 472
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 472
REFERENCES 472
Visual Information Seeking: Tight Coupling of Dynamic Query Filters with Starfield Displays 473
ABSTRACT 473
KEYWORDS: 473
INTRODUCTION 473
KEY CONCEPTS 473
FILMFINDER DESIGN 476
FILMFINDER SCENARIO 476
FUTURE WORK 477
REFERENCES 477
A Comparison of Graphical User Interfaces (Excerpt) 480
Chapter 7. 
492 
RELATING TASK AND TECHNOLOGY 492
A TAXONOMY OF INPUT DEVICES 495
CHUNKING AND PHRASING 496
MARKING 496
GESTURES 499
TWO-HANDED INPUT 500
REALIZING INPUT'S FULL POTENTIAL 501
CONCLUSION 502
REFERENCES 502
VIDEOS 505
Movement Time Prediction in Human-Computer Interfaces 506
Abstract 506
Introduction 506
A Brief Tour of Fitts' Law 506
Building a Fitts' Law Model 508
Refinements to Fitts' Law 510
Formulation for Index of Difficulty 510
Extension to Two Dimensions 510
Normalization and the Speed-Accuracy Tradeoff 511
Applying Fitts' Law: An Example 512
Acknowledgement 515
References 515
CHUNKING AND PHRASING AND THE DESIGN OF HUMAN-COMPUTER DIALOGUES 517
ABSTRACT 517
1. INTRODUCTION 517
2. SYNTAX: TWO APPROACHES 517
3. PHRASING AND GESTURE 518
4. COMPOUND TASKS 518
5. PHRASING AND COGNITIVE SKILLS 519
6. PRAGMATICS AND THE COMPONENTS OF INPUT 519
7. GRAMMARS, PRAGMATICS AND COMPLEXITY 520
9. GESTURES AND TRANSDUCERS 521
10. CONCLUSIONS 521
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 521
REFERENCES 521
Stylus User Interfaces for Manipulating Text 523
Abstract 523
1. Introduction 523
2. The Hardware 524
3. Parameters of Text Entry Systems 524
4. The Text Entry Program 526
5. The Editing Program 528
6. Summary 530
7. Acknowledgements 530
References 530
Tivoli: An Electronic Whiteboard for Informal Workgroup Meetings 532
ABSTRACT 532
INTRODUCTION 532
A SCENARIO OF TIVOLI USE 534
STATUS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS 538
REFERENCES 539
A Taxonomy of See-Through Tools 540
ABSTRACT 540
INTRODUCTION 540
RELATED WORK 541
OPERATION OF SEE-THROUGH TOOLS 541
TRIGGER 542
ACTION 543
APPEARANCE 544
MOTION 544
INSTANTIATION 545
SUMMARY OF THE TAXONOMY 545
CONCLUSIONS 545
FUTURE WORK 546
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 546
REFERENCES 546
Chapter 8. Speech, Language, and Audition 548
SPEECH AND NATURAL LANGUAGE INTERFACES 548
NONSPEECH AUDIO 554
CONCLUSION 556
REFERENCES 556
VIDEOS 559
Text-To-Speech Conversion Technology 562
What is TTS? 562
Text normalization 565
Word pronunciation 565
Prosodies 567
Phonetic rules 567
Voice tables 567
Hardware 
568 
Other approaches 568
References 568
An Introduction to Speech and Speaker Recognition 569
Factors affecting speech recognition 569
Applications 570
Components of aspeech recognition system 571
Dynamic time warping 572
Current speech recognition systems 572
Speaker recognition —the voice, not just the words 573
Speaker recognition systems 575
Acknowledgments 575
References 576
NATURAL LANGUAGE 577
The Nature of Understanding 579
The Nature of Speech 581
Conclusion 585
SUMMARY 586
Acknowledgments 586
References 586
AUDITORY ICONS IN LARGE-SCALE COLLABORATIVE ENVIRONMENTS 587
1. INTRODUCTION 587
2. CONFIRMATORY SOUNDS 588
3. PROCESS AND STATE INFORMATION 589
4. SOUNDS IN VERY LARGE ENVIRONMENTS 590
5. LISTENING TO OTHER USERS 591
6. CONCLUSIONS 591
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 592
REFERENCES 592
Part IV: Psychology and Human Factors 594
Chapter 9. Human Information Processing 596
THE HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESSOR 596
THE STUDY OF COGNITION TODAY 597
RESOURCES IN HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESSING 597
SKILLED PERFORMANCE 599
APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AS A FOUNDATION FOR HCI 601
BEYOND GOMS: COGNITIVE MODELING FACES ITS EARLY LIMITATIONS 602
MENTAL MODELS 604
ACTIVITY THEORY 605
LINGUISTICS AND PSYCOLINGUISTICS 605
DISTRIBUTED COGNITION AND ARTIFACT ANALYSIS 606
THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGY IN INTERFACE DESIGN: A SUMMING UP 606
User Technology: From Pointing to Pondering 610
1. The Vision of an Applied User Psychology 610
2. The Physical Interface: Pointing 611
3. The Cognitive Interface: Cognitive Skill 612
4. The Conceptual Interface: Mental Models 617
5. The Task Interface: Pondering Ideas 620
6. Conclusions 624
REFERENCES 625
The Growth of Cognitive Modelingin Human-Computer Interaction Since GOMS 626
ABSTRACT 626
1. GOMS AS COGNITIVE MODELING 627
2. ADVANCES IN MODELING SPECIFIC SERIAL COMPONENTS 629
3. EXTENSIONS OF THE BASIC FRAMEWORK 636
4. THE PLACE OF COGNITIVE MODELING IN HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION 643
REFERENCES 646
A GOMS Analysis of a Graphic, Machine-Paced, Highly Interactive Task 649
ABSTRACT 649
KEYWORDS: 649
GOMS AND HIGHLY INTERACTIVE TASKS 649
THE TASK 649
TWO GOMS ANALYSES IMPLEMENTED IN SOAR 650
RESULTS OF THE GOMS ANALYSES 651
DISCUSSION OF THE GOMS ANALYSES 654
BEYOND GOMS 654
CONCLUSIONS 655
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 655
REFERENCES 655
GOMS Meets the Phone Company: Analytic Modeling Applied to Real-World Problems 657
1. INTRODUCTION 657
2. METHODOLOGY 658
3. WHAT: EMPIRICAL DATA 658
4. WHY: GOMS 659
5. CONCLUSION & SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 661
FOOTNOTES 661
REFERENCES 662
THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY TO THE STUDY OF HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION 663
1. Introduction 663
2. The visions 665
3. The achievements 666
4. The realities of achievement 676
5. The future 678
6. Further reading 678
Let's Get Real: A Position Paper on the Role of Cognitive Psychology in the Design of Humanly Useful and Usable Systems 682
Mostly, Useful Theory Is Impossible 682
Where Possible, the Use of Theory Will Be Constrained and Modest 683
Some Useful Theory Will Be of Familiar Homely Kinds, and Have Minor Impact 684
More Useful "Theories" Will Be of New but Mundane Kinds 685
But Direct Empirical Modeling and Formative Evaluation Are Enough 685
References 688
Chapter 10. Designing to Fit Human Capabilities 690
DESIGNING FOR HUMAN ERROR 691
TRAINING , DOCUMENTATION, AND HELP 692
USERS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS 696
THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND WORKSTATION ERGONOMICS 698
REFERENCES 700
VODEOS 703
COMMENTARY: HUMAN ERRORAND THE DESIGN OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS 704
REFERENCES 706
HUMAN ERROR AND THE SEARCH FOR BLAME 707
Designing for Error 709
DEALING WITH ERROR 710
MINIMIZING ERROR 711
DETECTING ERROR 713
CORRECTING ERROR 718
CONCLUSION 718
Learning to Use a Word Processor: By Doing, by Thinking, and by Knowing 721
METHOD AND OVERVIEW 721
LEARNING BY DOING 723
LEARNING BY THINKING 726
LEARNING BY KNOWING 732
DESIGNING FOR EASE OF LEARNING 735
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 739
REFERENCES 739
Building User-centered On-line Help 741
INTERACTING DAILY 741
DESIGN IMPLICATIONS 742
DIFFERENT INTERFACES FOR DIFFERENT KINDS OF HELP 742
HELP DESIGN AS A FUNCTION OF ITS MEDIUM 745
IMPLICIT VERSUS EXPLICIT HELP 745
Computers for the Disabled 747
Improving VDT Work: Causes and Control of Health Concerns in VDT Use (Excerpt) 751
Implementing Solutions: Guidelines and Precautionary Notes 752
Introduction to Musculoskeletal Strain 753
Preventing Problems in the Arms and Hands 755
Part V: Research Frontiers in Human-Computer Interaction 762
Chapter 11. 
764 
A PARADIGM SHIFT FOR COMPUTING 764
A CSCW TAXONOMY 765
ASYNCHRONOUS GROUPWARE 766
SYNCHRONOUS GROUPWARE 768
THE ADOPTION, DEPLOYMENT, AND USE OF GROUPWARE 771
GUIDE TO FURTHER READING 771
REFERENCES 772
VIDEOS 776
Computers, Networks and Work 778
GROUPWARE AND SOCIAL DYNAMICS: EIGHT CHALLENGES FOR DEVELOPERS 785
The User-centred Iterative Design Of Collaborative Writing Software 798
ABSTRACT 798
KEYWORDS: 798
INTRODUCTION 798
TAXONOMY OF COLLABORATIVE WRITING 798
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS 800
THE FIRST PROTOTYPE 801
THE SECOND PROTOTYPE 802
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 803
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 804
REFERENCES 804
Chapter 12. From Customizable Systems to Intelligent Agents 806
TAILORING BY EXPLICIT CUSTOMIZATION 806
ADAPTIVE INTERFACES 809
PROGRAMMING BY DEMONSTRATION 810
AGENTS 811
REFERENCES 813
VIDEOS 815
There's No Place Like Home: Continuing Design in Use 816
The Practice of Designing in Use 819
Designing for Tailorability 826
Acknowledgments 826
References 826
EAGER: PROGRAMMING REPETITIVE TASKS BY EXAMPLE 827
ABSTRACT 827
KEYWORDS: 827
INTRODUCTION 827
RELATED WORK 827
WHAT EAGER DOES 830
USER INTERACTION 830
DOMAIN KNOWLEDGE 831
HIGH-LEVEL EVENTS AND USER ACTIONS 831
USER STUDY 831
LIMITATIONS 832
FUTURE DIRECTIONS 832
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 832
REFERENCES 832
Agents that Reduce work and information Overload 834
Training a Personal Digital Assistant 835
Some Examples of Existing Agents 838
Discussion 843
Acknowledgments 843
About the Author: 843
References 843
Beyond Intelligent Interfaces: Exploring, Analyzing, and Creating Success Models of Cooperative Problem Solving 845
Abstract. 845
3. Success Models for Cooperative Problem Solving 846
4. Second Generation of Cooperative Problem-Solving Systems 851
Chapter 13. 
856 
HYPERTEXT AND HYPERMEDIA 856
MULTIMEDIA 860
REFERENCES 863
VIDEOS 865
Behavioral Evaluation and Analysis of a Hypertext Browser 866
ABSTRACT 866
KEYWORDS: 866
INTRODUCTION 866
SUPERBOOK 866
BEHAVIORAL EVALUATION AND ANALYSIS OF SUPERBOOK 868
SUMMARY AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS 870
REFERENCES 871
SEVEN WAYS TO MAKE A HYPERTEXT PROJECT FAIL 872
A COMPOSITE CASE STUDY 872
SEVEN WAYS TO FAIL 873
SUMMARY 876
REFERENCES 876
Media Streams: An Iconic Visual Language for Video Representation 877
Abstract 877
1. Introduction: The Need for Video Representation 877
2. Representing Video 878
3. Media Streams: An Overview 881
4. Why Icons? 885
5. Representation Example: A Language for Human Action 886
6. Conclusions and Future Work 887
Acknowledgments 888
References 888
Case C: A Multimedia Communication System 890
REFERENCES 892
VIDEOS 892
THE FREESTYLE SYSTEM A DESIGN PERSPECTIVE 894
1. Introduction 894
2. User Interface Design 895
3. System Use 897
4. Emerging Applications 901
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 902
References 902
ITERATIVE TUTORIAL DESIGN IN THE PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT CYCLE 904
Abstract 904
Introduction 904
Results 906
Discussion 907
References 908
Acknowledgments 908
Chapter 14. 
920 
GLOBAL NETWORKING, INFORMATION HIGHWAYS, AND VIRTUAL COMMUNITIES 921
The MBONE 923
VIRTUAL REALITY 924
UBIQUITOUS COMPUTING 925
HOPES AND FEARS 926
GUIDE TO FURTHER READING 927
CONCLUSION 927
REFERENCES 928
VIDEOS 929
FUTURE SCENARIOS 929
The World-Wide Web 930
What Does W3 Define? 930
W3 and other Systems 932
Recent W3 Developments 933
The Future 934
Conclusion 935
Aappendix.Getting Started 935
NATURE AND ORIGINS OF VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS: A BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAY 936
1. COMMUNICATION AND ENVIRONMENTS 936
2. 
936 
3. ORIGINS OF VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS 937
4. VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS: PERFORMANCE AND TRADE-OFFS 946
REFERENCES 952
The Computer for the 21st Century 956
Index 964
Author Index 973