The Art of Game Design

Jesse Schell is distinguished professor of the practice of entertainment technology for Carnegie Mellon University's Entertainment Technology Center (ETC), a joint master's program between Carnegie Mellon's College of Fine Arts and School of Computer Science, where he teaches game design and leads several research projects. He is also CEO of Schell Games, LLC, an independent game studio in Pittsburgh. Formerly he was creative director of the Walt Disney Imagineering Virtual Reality Studio and chairman of the International Game Developers Association (IGDA). Schell worked as a designer, programmer, and manager on several projects for Disney theme parks and DisneyQuest. He received his undergraduate degree from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and master's degree in information networking from Carnegie Mellon. In 2004, he was named as one of the World's 100 Top Young Innovators by MIT's Technology Review.

Table of Lenses


Acknowledgments


Hello


In the Beginning, There Is the Designer


Magic Words


What Skills Does a Game Designer Need?


The Most Important Skill


The Five Kinds of Listening


The Secret of the Gifted


Other Reading to Consider


The Designer Creates an Experience


The Game Is Not the Experience


Is This Unique to Games?


Three Practical Approaches to Chasing Rainbows


Psychology


Anthropology


Design


Introspection: Powers, Perils, and Practice


Peril #1: Introspection Can Lead to False Conclusions about Reality


Peril #2: What Is True of My Experiences May Not Be True for Others


Dissect Your Feelings


Defeating Heisenberg


Analyze Memories


Two Passes


Sneak Glances


Observe Silently


Essential Experience


All That’s Real Is What You Feel


The Experience Takes Place in a Venue


The Shifting Sands of Platform


Private Venues


The Hearth


The Workbench


The Reading Nook


Public Venues


The Theater


The Arena


The Museum


Half Private/Half Public Venues


The Gaming Table


The Playground


Anywhere


Venues Mixed and Matched


Other Reading to Consider


The Experience Rises Out of a Game


A Rant about Definitions


So What Is a Game?


No, Seriously, What Is a Game?


Problem Solving 101


The Fruits of Our Labor


Other Reading to Consider


The Game Consists of Elements


What Are Little Games Made Of?


The Four Basic Elements


Skin and Skeleton


The Elements Support a Theme


Mere Games


Unifying Themes


Resonance


Back to Reality


Other Reading to Consider


The Game Begins with an Idea


Inspiration


State the Problem


How to Sleep


Your Silent Partner


Subconscious Tip #1: Pay Attention


Subconscious Tip #2: Record Your Ideas


Subconscious Tip #3: Manage Its Appetites (Judiciously)


Subconscious Tip #4: Sleep


Subconscious Tip #5: Don’t Push Too Hard


A Personal Relationship


Sixteen Nitty-Gritty Brainstorming Tips


Brainstorm Tip #1: The Write Answer


Brainstorm Tip #2: Write or Type?


Brainstorm Tip #3: Sketch


Brainstorm Tip #4: Toys


Brainstorm Tip #5: Change Your Perspective


Brainstorm Tip #6: Immerse Yourself


Brainstorm Tip #7: Crack Jokes


Brainstorm Tip #8: Spare No Expense


Brainstorm Tip #9: The Writing on the Wall


Brainstorm Tip #10: The Space Remembers


Brainstorm Tip #11: Write Everything


Brainstorm Tip #12: Number Your Lists


Brainstorm Tip #13: Destroy Your Assumptions


Brainstorm Tip #14: Mix and Match Categories


Brainstorm Tip #15: Talk to Yourself


Brainstorm Tip #16: Find a Partner


Look At All These Ideas! Now What?


Other Reading to Consider


The Game Improves through Iteration


Choosing an Idea


The Eight Filters


The Rule of the Loop


A Short History of Software Engineering


Danger—Waterfall—Keep Back


Barry Boehm Loves You


The Agile Manifesto


Risk Assessment and Prototyping


Example: Prisoners of Bubbleville


Prisoners of Bubbleville: Design Brief


Ten Tips for Productive Prototyping


Prototyping Tip #1: Answer a Question


Prototyping Tip #2: Forget Quality


Prototyping Tip #3: Don’t Get Attached


Prototyping Tip #4: Prioritize Your Prototypes


Prototyping Tip #5: Parallelize Prototypes Productively


Prototyping Tip #6: It Doesn’t Have to Be Digital


Tetris: A Paper Prototype


Halo: A Paper Prototype


Prototyping Tip #7: It Doesn’t Have to Be Interactive


Prototyping Tip #8: Pick a "Fast Loop" Game Engine


Prototyping Tip #9: Build the Toy First


Prototyping Tip #10: Seize Opportunities for More Loops


Closing the Loop


Loop 1: "New Racing" Game


Loop 2: "Racing Subs" Game


Loop 3: "Flying Dinos" Game


How Much Is Enough?


Your Secret Fuel


Other Reading to Consider


The Game Is Made for a Player


Einstein’s Violin


Project Yourself


Demographics


The Medium Is the Misogynist?


Five Things Males Like to See in Games


Five Things Females Like to See in Games


Psychographics


LeBlanc’s Taxonomy of Game Pleasures


Bartle’s Taxonomy of Player Types


More Pleasure: MORE!


Other Reading to Consider


The Experience Is in the Player’s Mind


Modeling


Focus


Empathy


Imagination


Other Reading to Consider


The Player’s Mind Is Driven by the Player’s Motivation


Needs…


And More Needs


Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation


Wanna vs. Hafta


Novelty


Judgment


Other Reading to Consider


Some Elements Are Game Mechanics


Mechanic 1: Space


Nested Spaces


Zero Dimensions


Mechanic 2: Time


Discrete and Continuous Time


Clocks and Races


Controlling Time


Mechanic 3: Objects, Attributes, and States


Secrets


Mechanic 4: Actions


Emergent Gameplay


Mechanic 5: Rules


Parlett’s Rule Analysis


Modes


Enforcer


Cheatability


The Most Important Rule


Wrapping Up Rules


Mechanic 6: Skill


Real vs. Virtual Skills


Enumerating Skills


Mechanic 7: Chance


Invention of Probability


Ten Rules of Probability Every Game Designer Should Know


Rule #1: Fractions Are Decimals Are Percents


Rule #2: Zero to One—and That’s It!


Rule #3: "Looked For" Divided By "Possible Outcomes" Equals Probability


Rule #4: Enumerate!


Rule #5: In Certain Cases, OR Means Add


Rule #6: In Certain Cases, AND Means Multiply


Rule #7: One Minus "Does" = "Doesn’t"


Rule #8: The Sum of Multiple Linear Random Selections is NOT a Linear Random Selection!


Rule #9: Roll the Dice


Rule #10: Geeks Love Showing Off (Gombaud’s Law)


Expected Value


Consider Values Carefully


Human Element


Skill and Chance Get Tangled


Other Reading to Consider


Game Mechanics Must Be in Balance


The Twelve Most Common Types of Game Balance


Balance Type #1: Fairness


Symmetrical Games


Asymmetrical Games


Biplane Battle


Rock, Paper, Scissors


Balance Type #2: Challenge vs. Success


Balance Type #3: Meaningful Choices


Triangularity


Balancing Type #4: Skill vs. Chance


Balancing Type #5: Head vs. Hands


Balance Type #6: Competition vs. Cooperation


Balance Type #7: Short vs. Long


Balance Type #8: Rewards


Balance Type #9: Punishment


Balance Type #10: Freedom vs. Controlled Experience


Balance Type #11: Simple vs. Complex


Natural vs. Artificial Balancing


Elegance


Character


Balance Type #12: Detail vs. Imagination


Game Balancing Methodologies


Balancing Game Economies


Dynamic Game Balancing


The Big Picture


Other Reading to Consider


Game Mechanics Support Puzzles


The Puzzle of Puzzles


Aren’t Puzzles Dead?


Good Puzzles


Puzzle Principle #1: Make the Goal Easily Understood


Puzzle Principle #2: Make It Easy to Get Started


Puzzle Principle #3: Give a Sense of Progress


Puzzle Principle #4: Give a Sense of Solvability


Puzzle Principle #5: Increase Difficulty Gradually


Puzzle Principle #6: Parallelism Lets the Player Rest


Puzzle Principle #7: Pyramid Structure Extends Interest


Puzzle Principle #8: Hints Extend Interest


Puzzle Principle #9: Give the Answer!


Puzzle Principle #10: Perceptual Shifts Are a Double-Edged Sword


A Final Piece


Other Reading to Consider


Players Play Games through an Interface


Between Yin and Yang


Breaking It Down


The Loop of Interaction


Juiciness


Primality


Channels of Information


Step 1: List and Prioritize Information


Step 2: List Channels


Step 3: Map Information to Channels


Step 4: Review Use of Dimensions


Modes


Mode Tip #1: Use as Few Modes as Possible


Mode Tip #2: Avoid Overlapping Modes


Mode Tip #3: Make Different Modes Look as Different as Possible


Other Interface Tips


Interface Tip #1: Steal


Interface Tip #2: Customize


Interface Tip #3: Design around Your Physical Interface


Interface Tip #4: Theme Your Interface


Interface Tip #5: Sound Maps to Touch


Interface Tip #6: Balance Options and Simplicity with Layers


Interface Tip #7: Use Metaphors


Interface Tip #8: If It Looks Different, It Should Act Different


Interface Tip #9: Test, Test, Test!


Interface Tip #10: Break the Rules to Help Your Player


Other Reading to Consider


Experiences Can Be Judged by Their Interest Curves


My First Lens


Interest Curves


Patterns inside Patterns


What Comprises Interest?


Factor 1: Inherent Interest


Factor 2: Poetry of Presentation


Factor 3: Projection


Interest Factor Examples


Putting It All Together


Other Reading to Consider


One Kind of Experience Is the Story


Story/Game Duality


Myth of Passive Entertainment


The Dream


The Reality


Real-World Method 1: The String of Pearls


Real-World Method 2: The Story Machine


The Problems


Problem #1: Good Stories Have Unity


Problem #2: The Combinatorial Explosion


Problem #3: Multiple Endings Disappoint


Problem #4: Not Enough Verbs


Problem #5: Time Travel Makes Tragedy Obsolete


The Dream Reborn


Story Tips for Game Designers


Story Tip #1: Goals, Obstacles, and Conflicts


Story Tip #2: Make It Real


Story Tip #3: Provide Simplicity and Transcendence


Story Tip #4: Consider the Hero’s Journey


Vogler’s Synopsis of the Hero’s Journey


Story Tip #5: Put Your Story to Work!


Story Tip #6: Keep Your Story World Consistent


Story Tip #7: Make Your Story World Accessible


Story Tip #8: Use Clichés Judiciously


Story Tip #9: Sometimes a Map Brings a Story to Life


Other Reading to Consider


Story and Game Structures Can Be Artfully Merged with Indirect Control


The Feeling of Freedom


Indirect Control Method #1: Constraints


Indirect Control Method #2: Goals


Indirect Control Method #3: Interface


Indirect Control Method #4: Visual Design


Indirect Control Method #5: Characters


Indirect Control Method #6: Music


Collusion


Other Reading to Consider


Stories and Games Take Place in Worlds


Transmedia Worlds


The Power of Pokemon


Properties of Transmedia Worlds


Transmedia Worlds Are Powerful


Transmedia Worlds Are Long Lived


Transmedia Worlds Evolve over Time


What Successful Transmedia Worlds Have in Common


Worlds Contain Characters


The Nature of Game Characters


Novel Characters


Movie Characters


Game Characters


Avatars


The Ideal Form


The Blank Slate


Creating Compelling Game Characters


Character Tip #1: List Character Functions


Character Tip #2: Define and Use Character Traits


Character Tip #3: Use the Interpersonal Circumplex


Character Tip #4: Make a Character Web


Archie


Veronica


Betty


Reggie


Jughead


Character Tip #5: Use Status


Character Tip #6: Use the Power of the Voice


Character Tip #7: Use the Power of the Face


Character Tip #8: Powerful Stories Transform Characters


Character Tip #9: Let Your Characters Surprise Us


Character Tip #10: Avoid the Uncanny Valley


Other Reading to Consider


Worlds Contain Spaces


The Purpose of Architecture


Organizing Your Game Space


A Word about Landmarks


Christopher Alexander Is a Genius


Alexander’s Fifteen Properties of Living Structures


Real vs. Virtual Architecture


Know How Big


Third-Person Distortion


Level Design


Other Reading to Consider


The Look and Feel of a World Is Defined by Its Aesthetics


Monet Refuses the Operation


The Value of Aesthetics


Learning to See


How to Let Aesthetics Guide Your Design


How Much Is Enough?


Use Audio


Balancing Art and Technology


Other Reading to Consider


Some Games Are Played with Other Players


We Are Not Alone


Why We Play with Others


Other Reading to Consider


Other Players Sometimes Form Communities


More than Just Other Players


Ten Tips for Strong Communities


Community Tip #1: Foster Friendships


Community Tip #2: Put Conflict at the Heart


Community Tip #3: Use Architecture to Shape your Community


Community Tip #4: Create Community Property


Community Tip #5: Let Players Express Themselves


Community Tip #6: Support Three Levels


Community Tip #7: Force Players to Depend on Each Other


Community Tip #8: Manage Your Community


Community Tip #9: Obligation to Others Is Powerful


Community Tip #10: Create Community Events


The Challenge of Griefing


The Future of Game Communities


Other Reading to Consider


The Designer Usually Works with a Team


The Secret of Successful Teamwork


If You Can’t Love the Game, Love the Audience


Designing Together


Team Communication


Other Reading to Consider


The Team Sometimes Communicates through Documents


The Myth of the Game Design Document


The Purpose of Documents


Memory


Communication


Types of Game Documents


Design


Engineering


Art


Production


Writing


Players


So, Where Do I Start?


Other Reading to Consider


Good Games Are Created through Playtesting


Playtesting


My Terrible Secret


Playtest Question the First: Why?


Playtest Question the Second: Who?


Playtest Question the Third: Where?


Playtest Question the Fourth: What?


The First What: Things You Know You Are Looking For


The Second What: Things You Don’t Know You Are Looking For


Playtest Question the Fifth: How?


Should You Even Be There?


What Do You Tell Them Up Front?


Where Do You Look?


What Other Data Should You Collect During Play?


Will I Disturb the Players Midgame?


What Data Will I Collect after the Play Session?


Surveys


Interviews


Other Reading to Consider


The Team Builds a Game with Technology


Technology, At Last


Foundational vs. Decorational


Mickey’s First Cartoon


Abalone


Sonic the Hedgehog


Myst


Journey


Ragdoll Physics


The Touch Revolution


The Hype Cycle


The Innovator’s Dilemma


The Law of Divergence


The Singularity


Look into Your Crystal Ball


Other Reading to Consider


Your Game Will Probably Have a Client


Who Cares What the Client Thinks?


Coping with Bad Suggestions


Not That Rock


The Three Layers of Desire


Firenze, 1498


Other Reading to Consider


The Designer Gives the Client a Pitch


Why Me?


A Negotiation of Power


The Hierarchy of Ideas


Twelve Tips for a Successful Pitch


Pitch Tip #1: Get in the Door


Pitch Tip #2: Show You Are Serious


Pitch Tip #3: Be Organized


Pitch Tip #4: Be Passionate!!!!!


Pitch Tip #5: Assume Their Point of View


Pitch Tip #6: Design the Pitch


Pitch Tip #7: Know All the Details


Pitch Tip #8: Exude Confidence


Pitch Tip #9: Be Flexible


Pitch Tip #10: Rehearse


Pitch Tip #11: Get Them to Own It


Pitch Tip #12: Follow Up


Hey, What about Kickstarter?


Other Reading to Consider


The Designer and Client Want the Game to Make a Profit


Love and Money


Know Your Business Model


Retail


Direct Download


Free to Play


Know Your Competition


Know Your Audience


Learn the Language


General Game Business Terms


Free to Play Business Terms


Know the Top Sellers


The Importance of Barriers


Other Reading to Consider


Games Transform Their Players


How Do Games Change Us?


Can Games Be Good For You?


Emotional Maintenance


Connecting


Exercise


Education


Giving the Brain What It Wants


Facts


Problem Solving


Systems of Relationships


New Insights


Curiosity


Creating Teachable Moments


Transformational Games


Transformational Tip #1: Define Your Transformation


Transformational Tip #2: Find Great Subject Matter Experts


Transformational Tip #3: What Does the Instructor Need?


Transformational Tip #4: Don’t Do Too Much


Transformational Tip #5: Assess Transformation Appropriately


Transformational Tip #6: Choose the Right Venue


Transformational Tip #7: Accept the Realities of the Market


Can Games Be Bad For You?


Violence


Addiction


Experiences


Other Reading to Consider


Designers Have Certain Responsibilities


The Danger of Obscurity


Being Accountable


Your Hidden Agenda


The Secret Hidden in Plain Sight


The Ring


Other Reading to Consider


Each Designer Has a Purpose


The Deepest Theming


Goodbye


Endnotes


Bibliography


Index