Basics of Geomatics (eBook)
XLI, 656 Seiten
Springer Netherlands (Verlag)
978-1-4020-9014-1 (ISBN)
Geomatics is a neologism, the use of which is becoming increasingly widespread, even if it is not still universally accepted. It includes several disciplines and te- niques for the study of the Earth's surface and its environments, and computer science plays a decisive role. A more meaningful and appropriate expression is G- spatial Information or GeoInformation. Geo-spatial Information embeds topography in its more modern forms (measurements with electronic instrumentation, sophisticated techniques of data analysis and network compensation, global satellite positioning techniques, laser scanning, etc.), analytical and digital photogrammetry, satellite and airborne remote sensing, numerical cartography, geographical information systems, decision support systems, WebGIS, etc. These specialized elds are intimately interrelated in terms of both the basic science and the results pursued: rigid separation does not allow us to discover several common aspects and the fundamental importance assumed in a search for solutions in the complex survey context. The objective pursued by Mario A. Gomarasca, one that is only apparently modest, is to publish an integrated text on the surveying theme, containing simple and comprehensible concepts relevant to experts in Geo-spatial Information and/or speci cally in one of the disciplines that compose it. At the same time, the book is rigorous and synthetic, describing with precision the main instruments and methods connected to the multiple techniques available today.
Foreword 5
Authors Preface 7
Contents 9
Acronyms 22
1 Geomatics 39
1.1 Computer Science 41
1.2 Data and Information 42
1.3 Geodesy and Cartography 43
1.4 Photogrammetry (Analogical, Analytical, Digital) 45
1.5 Remote Sensing 45
1.6 Global Satellite Positioning Systems 47
1.7 Laser Scanning 48
1.8 Geographical Information Systems 48
1.9 Decision Support Systems and Expert Systems 49
1.10 Spatial Information 49
1.11 Geography 50
1.12 Ontology 51
1.13 The Geomatics Expert 52
1.14 Summary 53
Further Reading 54
2 Elements of Cartography 56
2.1 Milestones in the History of Cartography 57
2.2 Earth Shape: Ellipsoid and Geoid 65
2.3 Reference Systems 71
2.4 Ellipsoid and DATUM 72
2.5 Coordinate Systems 73
2.6 Ellipsoidic (or Geodetic or Geographic) Coordinates 73
2.7 Cartesian Geocentric Coordinates 76
2.8 Planar Cartographic Coordinates 77
2.9 Cartographic Projection 77
2.9.1 Perspective Projection 79
2.9.2 Development Projection 80
2.10 Examples of Cartographic Projections 80
2.10.1 Mercator Map 81
2.10.2 Gauss Map 81
2.10.3 Polar Stereographic Projection 84
2.10.4 Lambert Conical Conformal Projection 84
2.10.5 Earth Globe Projection: The Planisphere 84
2.11 Reference Scale 84
2.11.1 Scale Factor or Scale of Reduction 85
2.11.2 Graphical Scale 85
2.11.3 Area Scale 86
2.11.4 Relative Scale 86
2.12 Cartography in the World 86
2.12.1 Cartography Projection in the World 87
2.12.2 International Reference Systems 87
2.12.2.1 Geocentric System WGS84 87
2.12.2.2 Unified European Reference System (ED50) 90
2.12.2.3 North American Datum (NAD83) 90
2.12.2.4 Geocentric Reference System for the Americas (SIRGAS) 91
2.13 Transformation Among Reference Systems 92
2.14 Map Classification 92
2.14.1 Basic and Thematic Cartography 92
2.14.1.1 Topographic Maps 93
2.14.1.2 Thematic Maps 93
2.14.2 Classification According to Scale 95
2.14.3 Maps from Satellite 96
2.14.3.1 Global Scale 96
2.14.3.2 Regional Scale 98
2.14.3.3 Local Scale 98
2.15 Technology and Cartography: Numerical and Digital Cartography 99
2.15.1 Traditional Cartography 99
2.15.2 Automatic Cartography 100
2.15.3 Numerical Cartography 100
2.15.3.1 Numerical Data Format 101
2.15.3.2 Information Content of the Numerical Data 101
2.15.3.3 Code System 103
2.15.3.4 Data Organization 103
2.15.3.5 General Quality Criteria and Map Production Problems 104
2.15.3.6 Production Methods 104
2.15.3.7 Data Transfer 109
2.16 Map Reading 109
2.16.1 Elements of the Natural Landscape 111
2.16.2 Elements of the Anthropic Landscape 111
2.16.3 Generic Nomenclature 112
2.17 Summary 112
Further Reading 113
3 Elements of Photogrammetry 115
3.1 Milestones in the History of Photography 115
3.2 Milestones in the History of Photogrammetry 120
3.3 General Concepts 122
3.4 Traditional Photogrammetry 124
3.4.1 Stereoscopy and Restitution 125
3.4.2 Geometrical Basics of Photogrammetry 129
3.4.3 The Real Model: Distortion and Calibration 132
3.4.4 Instruments and Modality of Acquisition 132
3.4.5 Flight Plan 137
3.4.6 Artificial Stereoscopy Techniques 138
3.4.7 Image Orientation and Stereo-plotting 140
3.4.7.1 Stereo-plotters 144
3.5 Digital Photogrammetry 144
3.5.1 Traditional and Digital Systems 145
3.5.2 Format of Digital Images 147
3.5.3 Digital Images' Metric Content 148
3.6 Digital Photogrammetry Devices 149
3.6.1 Digital Photogrammetric System 150
3.7 Digital Orthophoto 150
3.8 Oblique Photographs 153
3.9 Satellite Sensors for Photogrammetric Application 154
3.9.1 Parametric Approach 155
3.9.2 Non-parametric Approach 155
3.10 Summary 155
Further Reading 156
4 Elements of Remote Sensing 158
4.1 Milestones in the History of Remote Sensing 159
4.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum 162
4.3 Optical Passive Remote Sensing 165
4.3.1 Sources of Electromagnetic Waves: The Sun and the Earth 165
4.3.2 Physical Principles 166
4.3.2.1 Kirchhoff's Radiation Law 168
4.3.2.2 Planck's Radiation Law 170
4.3.2.3 Stefan'Boltzmann's Radiation Law 171
4.3.2.4 Wien's Displacement Law 172
4.3.2.5 Terrestrial Albedo 173
4.3.3 Visible Radiation and Colour 173
4.3.3.1 Colour Definition 176
4.3.3.2 Chromaticity Coordinates 176
4.3.3.3 Hue, Saturation, Intensity 176
4.3.3.4 CIE System 177
4.3.4 Radiometric Terminology 178
4.3.4.1 Radiance: The Radiometric Term Measured in Remote Sensing 180
4.3.5 Spectral Response 182
4.3.6 Electromagnetic Radiation--Atmosphere Interaction 183
4.3.6.1 Atmospheric Effects in the Visible 186
4.3.6.2 Atmospheric Effects in the Thermal Infrared 189
4.4 Active Remote Sensing in the Microwave 190
4.4.1 Radar Versus Optical Systems 198
4.4.2 Radar Systems 200
4.4.2.1 Typology of Radar Sensors 203
4.4.2.2 Deformation of Radar Images 204
4.4.3 Radar Techniques 206
4.4.3.1 Radar Interferometry 207
4.4.3.2 Digital Surface Model (DSM) Generation 212
4.4.3.3 Applications of Differential Interferometry 213
4.4.3.4 In-Field Differential Interferometry 215
4.5 Summary 216
Further Reading 217
5 Elements of Informatics 220
5.1 Milestones in the History of Informatics 220
5.2 Architecture of the Computing Systems 223
5.2.1 Algorithm 224
5.2.2 Computer Hardware 225
5.2.2.1 Digital Code 225
5.2.2.2 Von Neumann Architecture 226
5.2.2.3 Computer Systems 230
5.2.3 Computer Software 231
5.2.3.1 Operating Systems 233
5.2.3.2 Databases 237
5.2.3.3 Database Management Software 243
5.3 Network Architecture 243
5.3.1 Transmission Mode 244
5.3.2 Network Logical Scheme 245
5.3.3 Network Typology and Digital Transmission (Classification WAN/LAN) 247
5.3.3.1 Local Network Configuration (LAN) 247
5.3.4 Network Topological Relationships 248
5.3.5 Communication Protocols 249
5.4 Network Infrastructures 250
5.4.1 Internet 250
5.4.2 World Wide Web 250
5.4.3 WWW Navigation 252
5.4.4 Intranet 253
5.4.5 Network Security 253
5.4.6 Wireless 253
5.4.7 Search Engine 255
5.4.8 Groupware 256
5.4.9 Web 2.0 or Internet 2.0 257
5.4.10 Blog 258
5.5 Evolution of Hardware and Software in Geomatics 258
5.5.1 Technology Evolution in Remote Sensed Data 259
5.5.2 Configuration of a Geomatics System 261
5.5.2.1 Working Station 261
5.5.2.2 Consideration About Software 262
5.6 Summary 263
Further Reading 264
6 Acquisition Systems 266
6.1 Imagery Generation 267
6.1.1 Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) Detector 270
6.1.2 Acquisition Geometry 271
6.1.2.1 Central Matrix Acquisition Geometry 272
6.1.2.2 Punctual Scan Sensor (Whiskbroom) 272
6.1.2.3 Linear Scan Sensor (Pushbroom) 273
6.2 Instrument Resolution 275
6.3 Earth Observation Satellites 280
6.3.1 History of the Space Missions 282
6.3.2 Satellite Platforms 286
6.3.2.1 Spectral Intervals 288
6.4 Earth Observation Space Programmes 291
6.4.1 EUMETSAT: Geostationary Meteorological Satellites Network 292
6.4.2 NOAA Meteorological Programme 293
6.4.3 NASA (USA) Space Programme 294
6.4.3.1 Landsat Series 295
6.4.3.2 Landsat 7 297
6.4.3.3 EOS-AM Terra 298
6.4.3.4 EOS-AM Aqua 300
6.4.3.5 EOS-AM Aura 301
6.4.3.6 Earth Observing-1 (EO-1) Satellite 301
6.4.4 ESA (European Union) Space Programme 302
6.4.4.1 ENVISAT 304
6.4.4.2 ERS-1 and ERS-2 Satellites 307
6.4.5 ASI (Italy) Space Programme 308
6.4.5.1 COSMO/SkyMed 308
6.4.6 CNES (France) Space Programme 311
6.4.6.1 SPOT Satellites 312
6.4.6.2 Jason 314
6.4.6.3 Pleiade 314
6.4.7 FSA (Russia) Space Programme 315
6.4.7.1 MIR Space Station 315
6.4.7.2 Priroda 316
6.4.7.3 Resurs-01 317
6.4.7.4 Photographic Cameras on Board Satellites 318
6.4.7.5 Resurs-DK 319
6.4.8 ISRO (India) Space Programme 321
6.4.9 JAXA (Japan) Space Programme 324
6.4.9.1 ADEOS-II 325
6.4.9.2 ALOS 327
6.4.9.3 TRMM 328
6.4.10 CSA (Canada) Space Programme 328
6.4.10.1 Radarsat 328
6.4.11 KARI (South Korea) Space Programme 329
6.4.12 The China--Brazil Cooperative (CBERS) Space Programme 330
6.4.13 CONAE (Argentina) Space Programme 331
6.4.14 International Space Station (ISS) 332
6.4.15 Radar Missions on the Space Shuttle 333
6.4.16 Commercial Satellites 334
6.4.16.1 IKONOS 337
6.4.16.2 QuickBird 339
6.4.16.3 OrbView 339
6.4.16.4 EROS 340
6.4.16.5 Rapideye 341
6.4.16.6 TerraSAR-X 342
6.4.17 Other Missions 342
6.5 Airborne Systems 343
6.5.1 Aerophotogrammetric Digital Cameras 344
6.5.1.1 Airborne Digital Sensor (ADS40) 345
6.5.1.2 Modular Digital Camera (DMC) 346
6.5.1.3 High-Resolution Stereo Camera-Airborne (HRSC-A) 347
6.5.1.4 Linear or Matrix 349
6.5.2 Hyperspectral Sensors 351
6.5.3 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 355
6.5.3.1 Tactical Group, the Mini-UAVs 356
6.5.4 Laser 358
6.5.4.1 Laser Scanning System 362
6.5.4.2 Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS) Acquisition 363
6.6 Instruments for In-Field Acquisition 364
6.6.1 Photographic Films 364
6.6.2 Digital Photo Camera 365
6.6.3 Terrestrial Laser Scanner 367
6.6.4 Video Cameras and Thermal Cameras 368
6.6.5 Radiometers 368
6.6.5.1 Photometers 369
6.6.5.2 Spectroradiometers 370
6.7 Summary 370
Further Reading 372
7 Satellite Positioning Systems 376
7.1 NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) 376
7.1.1 The GPS Signal (NAVSTAR) 379
7.1.2 GPS Measurement 380
7.1.2.1 Code or Pseudo-distance Measurements 382
7.1.2.2 Phase Measurement 382
7.1.3 GPS Operative Mode 383
7.1.4 GPS Errors 386
7.1.4.1 Selective Availability (SA) 386
7.1.4.2 Systematic Errors 388
7.1.4.3 Accidental Errors 388
7.1.4.4 Orbital Errors 389
7.1.4.5 Troposphere and Ionosphere Errors 389
7.1.5 GPS Geodetic Reference System 390
7.1.6 Receivers 391
7.2 GLONASS Global Positioning System 391
7.2.1 GLONASS Characteristics 392
7.2.2 GLONASS Versus NAVSTAR GPS 394
7.3 Galileo Global Positioning System 395
7.3.1 Positioning Services 396
7.3.2 Technical Characteristics 398
7.3.3 Applications 400
7.4 Summary 401
Further Reading 403
8 Digital Image Processing 404
8.1 Image Transformation 406
8.2 Pre-processing 407
8.2.1 Radiometric Pre-processing 407
8.2.1.1 Radiometric Effect Depending on the Sensor 408
8.2.1.2 Radiometric Effects Depending on the System Geometry 412
8.2.1.3 Atmospheric Effects 413
8.2.2 Atmospheric Correction 414
8.2.2.1 Computation of the Surface Reflectance 415
8.2.2.2 Computation of the Surface Temperature 417
8.2.3 Geometric Pre-processing 418
8.2.3.1 Distortions Depending on the Platform Altitude, Velocity and Attitude 418
8.2.3.2 Panoramic Distortion 419
8.2.3.3 Distortions Depending on the Earth's Rotation 419
8.2.3.4 Distortions Depending on the Earth's Curvature 420
8.2.4 Correction of the Geometric Distortion 421
8.2.4.1 Image Registration 421
8.2.4.2 Resampling 423
8.2.4.3 Orographic Effect and Orthoprojection 424
8.3 Digital Image Processing 425
8.3.1 Spectral Analysis Techniques 426
8.3.1.1 Look-Up Tables (LUT) 427
8.3.1.2 Image Histogram 427
8.3.1.3 Scatterogram 430
8.3.1.4 Radiance Profile 431
8.3.1.5 Density Slicing 432
8.3.1.6 Contrast Enhancement Techniques 434
8.3.1.7 Spatial or Geometric Transformation Techniques 440
8.3.1.8 Pan-Sharpening Technique 445
8.3.2 Qualitative Interpretation of the Images (Photo-interpretation) 446
8.3.2.1 False-Colour Composites 448
8.3.2.2 Visual Processes of the Interpretation 449
8.3.2.3 Elements in Image Interpretation 450
8.3.2.4 Resolution 466
8.3.2.5 Vegetation Spectral Behaviour 469
8.3.2.6 Soil Spectral Behaviour 473
8.3.2.7 Water Spectral Behaviour 475
8.3.2.8 Multi-temporal Images 478
8.4 Quantitative Analysis 479
8.4.1 Multispectral Transformation of the Images (Vegetation Indices) 479
8.4.1.1 Indices with Conservation of the Original Radiometric Data 482
8.4.1.2 Indices with Modification of the Radiometric Information 485
8.4.2 Classification Techniques 489
8.4.2.1 Unsupervised Classification 491
8.4.2.2 Supervised Classification 494
8.4.3 Qualitative and Quantitative Analyses of Radar Images 502
8.4.4 Crop Backscattered Energy 502
8.4.5 Soil and Water Backscattered Energy 505
8.4.6 Radar Images Classification 505
8.4.6.1 Pixel-Based Approach 505
8.4.6.2 Field-Based Approach 506
8.4.6.3 Combined Use of SAR Data and Optical Multispectral Data for Crop Classification 507
8.4.7 Assessment of Classification Accuracy 508
8.5 Summary 510
Further Reading 511
9 Elements of Geographical Information Systems 515
9.1 Typology of the Geographical Information Systems 516
9.2 Format of the Geographical Data 518
9.3 GIS Components and Structure 520
9.3.1 Hardware 521
9.3.2 Software 521
9.3.3 Input Data 522
9.4 The Organizational Context 524
9.4.1 Databases and Structures 525
9.5 Spatial Data Models 525
9.5.1 Vector Format 525
9.5.2 Raster or Grid Model 527
9.6 Integration of Vector and Raster Data 528
9.7 Methods of Spatial Data Analysis 530
9.7.1 Spatial Data Analysis 532
9.7.2 Attributes Analysis 532
9.7.3 Integrated Analysis of Spatial Data and Attributes 533
9.8 Representation Methods of the Earths Surface 538
9.8.1 Digital Terrain Models 540
9.8.1.1 DSM/DTM or DEM Production Steps 541
9.8.1.2 3D Coordinates of the Height Spots 546
9.8.1.3 Sampling Methodologies 546
9.9 GIS Evolution 553
9.9.1 GIS Object Oriented 554
9.9.2 Decision Support Systems (DSS) 555
9.9.3 Expert Systems (ES) 556
9.9.4 Role of the ES in Image Interpretation and Classification 559
9.9.4.1 Knowledge Representation: Role of the Fuzzy Logic 560
9.9.4.2 Knowledge Acquisition 562
9.10 Error, Accuracy, Precision and Tolerance 563
9.10.1 Definitions 563
9.10.2 Types of Error 565
9.10.3 Sources of Error 565
9.10.3.1 Evident Sources of Error 565
9.10.3.2 Errors Depending on Natural Variation and on Measurement Methods 567
9.10.3.3 Errors in the Processing 567
9.10.3.4 Error Propagation 568
9.11 Metadata and Data Quality 569
9.12 Geographical Information Systems Distribution on the Web 572
9.12.1 Requirements and Purposes of a WebGIS 573
9.12.2 Federated and Distributed Systems 574
9.12.3 Structure of GIS Diffusion Systems on the Web 575
9.12.4 Architecture of a Web-Oriented GIS 577
9.12.5 Applicative Software 579
9.12.6 Data Interoperability 579
9.12.7 XML Standard 580
9.12.8 Geography Markup Language (GML) 581
9.12.9 Instruments for Graphical Representation 583
9.12.10 Graphical Representation of Geographic Elements 583
9.13 Spatial Data Infrastructure 584
9.13.1 GSDI 584
9.13.2 Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the European Community -- INSPIRE 586
9.13.3 GEO and GEOSS 587
9.13.4 Global Monitoring for Environment and Security, GMES 588
9.14 Summary 589
Further Reading 591
10 Land Use/Land Cover Classification Systems 595
10.1 Global Networks in Land Cover 595
10.1.1 Terminology: Land Cover and Land Use 596
10.1.1.1 The Problem of the Legend 597
10.1.2 Land Cover Classification Systems Based on Pre-defined Classes and Legends 597
10.1.2.1 USGS Land Use/Land Cover Classification Systems (1972/1976) 597
10.1.2.2 EarthSat GeoCover Land Cover Legend (1990) 599
10.1.2.3 National Land Cover Data (NLCD) Classification System (1992) 600
10.1.2.4 UNEP/FAO Land Cover Legend (1993) 601
10.1.2.5 USGS and IGBP-DIS Land Cover Obtained by Modification of USGS 1976 Classification (1996) 602
10.1.2.6 South African Standard Land Cover Classification System (1996) 603
10.1.2.7 GOFC/GOLD Land and Forest Cover Classification (1998) 604
10.1.2.8 Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) Standard (1998) 604
10.1.2.9 CORINE Programme 605
10.1.3 Land Cover Classification Systems Based on Diagnostic Independent Criteria 617
10.1.3.1 Africover Project 617
10.2 Summary 629
Further Reading 630
Colour Plates 633
Index 676
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 18.9.2009 |
|---|---|
| Zusatzinfo | XLI, 656 p. |
| Verlagsort | Dordrecht |
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Informatik ► Grafik / Design ► Digitale Bildverarbeitung |
| Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Ökologie / Naturschutz | |
| Naturwissenschaften ► Geowissenschaften ► Geografie / Kartografie | |
| Naturwissenschaften ► Geowissenschaften ► Geologie | |
| Technik | |
| Schlagworte | Cartography • Geodesy • Geographic and Decision Support System • Geoinformation • Geoinformationssysteme • Geo Science Spatial Information • Geospatial • GIS • Global Positioning Systems • Image Processing • Remote Sensing • Remote Sensing/Photogrammetry • Satellite |
| ISBN-10 | 1-4020-9014-5 / 1402090145 |
| ISBN-13 | 978-1-4020-9014-1 / 9781402090141 |
| Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt? |
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