Psychosocial Theories of Human Behavior and Development

Timothy Page, M.S.W., Ph.D., is Professor Emeritus at Louisiana State University School of Social Work, where he taught for 17 years and served 14 years as Ph.D. program director. Prior to his academic career, he practiced clinical social work with children, adolescents, and families, with particular interest in children’s play therapy. The courses he taught, in the M.S.W. program, were primarily in the areas of human behavior and development and social work direct practice, and, in the Ph.D. Program, research methods. He has also mentored numerous student masters theses and doctoral dissertations. His research interests concern children’s mental health and development, with a focus on attachment experience. Much of his research, in collaboration with numerous colleagues and former students, has involved the use of narrative story stem methods to assess children’s emotional wellbeing and relational perceptions in the context of attachment security. He has published his work in 3 dozen journal articles and book chapters and presented in numerous national and international conference venues.

Chapter 1: Social Science in Social Contexts

The Systematic Measurement of Social Reality

A Typology of Sources of Knowledge

Thomas Kuhn’s Theory of Paradigm Change

Social Constructions of Reality

Contemporary Efforts Toward Theory Integration: The Transactional-Ecological Model

Chapter 2: Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory

Consciousness, The Unconscious, and Defense

Insights from Freud’s Treatment of Hysteria

The Topographical Model

The Structural Model of Personality

A Hierarchy of Defenses

Internalized Identifications: The Superego

The Theory of Libidinous Drive Energy and Its Internal Regulation

Theory of Psychosexual Development

The Normalcy of Control and Cruelty

Fixation and Ego Development

The Phallic Phase

Applications to a Theory of Psychopathology

Symptoms, Defenses, and Cure

The Question of the Death Instinct

Later Modifications of Theories of Anxiety and Trauma

Discussion

Changing Historical Perspectives and the Sources of Knowledge

Contemporary Influences in Research and Practice

Represented Reality and Its Link to Adjustment and Treatment

Linkages with Contemporary Neuroscience

The Question of Sexuality in Development

Chapter 3: Psychoanalytic Revisionists

The Will Psychology of Otto Rank

Rank’s Model of Development of True Will

Will and Personality over the Lifespan

Influence on Social Work

The Individual Psychology of Alfred Alder

A Dichotomy of Power and Weakness

Gendered Valences in Developmental Adaptations

Influences by Larger Social Systems

Goals as Personality Organization

The Emergence of a More Explicit Ego Psychology: Heinz Hartmann

Object Relations Theories

The Revisionist Vision of Ronald Fairbairn



Theory of Psychopathology
General Model of Personality Development
Theory of Ego Development

The Contributions of Donald Winnicott



Theory of Normative Development
Innovations in Treatment and Research Methods
The Significance of Separation and Safety
Relation to Freudian Theory

Karen Horney’s Self-Realization Theory



A Typology of Normative and Maladaptive Relational Styles

Neurotic Solutions


Horney’s Boundary-Spanning Perspective

The Interpersonal Theories of Harry Stack Sullivan



Normative Development

The Emergence of the Self-System Out of the Experience of Anxiety
Representational Models of the Self


Chronology of Development
Contributions to Clinical Practice

Discussion

Chapter 4: Eriksonian Theory

The Epigenetic Stage Model of Psychosocial Development

Stage 1: Trust vs. Basic Mistrust

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt



The Unique Developmental Importance of Play

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt



A Pursuit of Knowledge and a Flight of Imagination

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion



The Mutuality of Ego Organization
Identity Fragmentation, Group, and Ideology

Stage 6: Intimacy vs Isolation

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Stage 8: Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Discussion

Empirical Investigations

Challenges to Stage Uniformity

Relevant Insights from the Field of Affective Neuroscience

Other Critiques and Historical Context

Chapter 5: Behaviorism: A Physiology of Learning

Foundation and Early Years: Watson’s Behavioral Manifesto

A Physiological Psychology

Little Albert and the Danger of Affection

The Purposive Behaviorism of Edward Tolman

The Radical Behaviorism of B.F. Skinner

A New Typology of Conditioning

The Central Concept of the Operant

Model of Behavioral Control and Change

Theory of Developmental Progression

The Problem of Emotion

The Problem of Pleasure

The Questions of Will and Freedom

Social Group Behavior from the Behaviorist Perspective

Discussion

The Neuroscience of Reinforcement

The Neuroscience of the Cognitive Map

Cultural Contexts and Conditioning

Reckoning with a Legacy

Chapter 6: Piagetian Theory

Early Years and Influences

Sensorimotor Challenges and Achievements

Assimilative and Accommodative Information Processing Capacities

The Advent of Object Permanence and Conservation

Object Permanence, Person Permanence, and Affective Ties

The Transition from the Sensorimotor Toward the Representational

The Significance of Symbolism and Play

Preoperatory Period

Concrete Operations, a Transition in Logico-Mathematical Capacities

Concrete Operations and New Forms of Social Play

Concrete Operations and Moral Behavior

Formal Thought

Discussion

The Question of Stage-Related Development

Chapter 7: Social Psychological Theories

The Socio-Physiological Theories of George H. Mead

The Central Reality of Social Group Memberships in Human Development

Developmental Maturation

The Instinctive Motives Toward Cohesion, Domination, and Self-Preservation

Discussion

The Field Theory of Kurt Lewin

A Typology of Social Forces

Motivation, Social Field, and the Life Space

The Early Influence of Social Facts and Social Forces on Development

The System Characteristics of Development



The Particular Relevance of Tension in Field Theory
Von Bertalanffy’s General System Theory

Pioneering Research in Small Group Behavior

From Small Group to Action Research

Discussion



Field Theory and Neuroscience
Other Significant Influences

The Structural-Functional Theory of Social Organization of Talcott Parsons

The Structure of Behavioral Action

Role Assignment and Actualization

The Symbolic Communication of Role-Based Attributes

The Processes of Role Negotiation and Adoption

The System Characteristics of Social Structures

Discussion

The Dramaturgical Theory of Social Behavior of Erving Goffman

Group Performances as Teams

The Interaction of Social Systems in Support of the Performance

The Systemic Need for Losers

The Basic Needs Behind the Need to Perform

Discussion



Linkages with Neurobiological Research
Linkages with Other Psychosocial Theories

Chapter Discussion

Chapter 8: Humanistic Psychology

The Original Insights of Kurt Goldstein

Self-Actualization and Society

Normal and Pathological Developmental Trajectories

The Emergence of the 3rd Force

Gordon Allport and the Significance of Propriate Striving



The Core Motivation of Propriate Striving
The Emergence of Self in Development
Becoming in Philosophical Context
Prejudice and “The Roots of Hostility”

The Self-Actualizing Theory of Abraham Maslow



A Hierarchy of Needs

The Physiological Needs
The Safety Needs
Belonginess and Love Needs
Esteem Needs
Self-Actualization Needs


Maslow’s Gratification Theory and Parenting

The Humanistic Psychotherapy of Carl Rogers



Empirical Studies

Empirical Critique of the Developmental Significance of Self-Actualization

Neurobiology

Discussion

Healthy and Unhealthy Striving

Chapter 9: Social Cognition

Perceptions of Others, Stereotypes, and Prejudices

Moving from Perception to Stereotyped and Prejudicial Behavior

Theory of Mind and Reflective Function

Reflective Function, Schemas, and Attributions

The Cognition of Emotion

Mood and Cognition

Consciousness and Unconsciousness

Memory and Social Cognitive Functions

Narrative Organization of Memory



The Impact of Trauma on Memory Organization

Self-Schemas

The Functional Significance of Self-Efficacy Beliefs, Self-Enhancing Appraisals, and Self-Abasement

Conceptual Models of Cognition and Personality

The Big-5 Model of Personality

The DSM-5 Alternative Model of Personality Disorders

Early Maladaptive Schemas

The Nature of Motivations, Beginning with the Motive to Belong

Self-Enhancement

Understanding

Trust

Control and Controlling Behavior

Mastery Motivation

Values

The Theory of Human Values of Schwartz and Colleagues

Values and Emotions

Moral Development

Reasoning and Feeling

Moral Foundations

A Brief Sampling of the Neurobiology of Various Cognitive Processes

Discussion

Chapter 10: Social Ecological Theory

Bronfenbrenner’s Early Life and Foundations of the Theory

Biological Systems Level

The Nature of Temperament

Microsystems

The Family



Parenting in the Social Context

Belsky’s Determinants of Parenting


Systems Characteristics of Families
The Impact of Exposure to Maltreatment and Emotional Trauma

The Adverse Childhood Experiences Study


Coping and Adaptation to Stress

Peer Relationships



Peer Groups

Peer Social Status


Play, Social Influence, and Identity

The School Microsystem

The Community Microsystem

Mesosystems

Parent-Peer Linkages

Parent-School Linkages

Community Contexts



Mesosystems and Social Capital

Exosystems

Exosystem Influences on the Family



Parental Early Developmental History
Parental Social Networks
Parents’ Workplaces

School Exosystem Effects

The Life-Long Impact of Social Class

Exosystems and Critical Theory

Community Exosystem Effects



The Example of Public Housing in the U.S.
An Example of an Equalizing Exosystem Influence

Macrosystems

A Cultural Typology

The Institutional Transmission of Culture and Beliefs

Ideology and Economic Institutions

Culture and the Transmission of Gender Roles

Chronosystem Influences

Elder’s Life Course Theory

Discussion

Chapter 11: Ethological Theories

The Pioneering Research of Konrad Lorenz

The Integration of Instinct and Learning

Appetitive and Consummatory Phases

Instinct, Learning, and Dependence

Attachment Affiliation

The Problem of Intraspecies Aggression

Attachment Theory

Attachment and Other Behavioral Systems



An Integration of Cybernetics

Internal Working Models

Phases of Attachment and Coordination of Behavioral Systems

Theory of Psychological Defenses

Theory of Grief and Mourning

The First Public Presentations and Reception

Mary Ainsworth’s Contributions to Attachment Theory



Studies in the U.S. and the Development of the Strange Situation Procedure
Secure and Insecure Patterns of Attachment

Other Innovations in Attachment Research

Discussion

Affective Neuroscience

A Hierarchical Organization of the Brain/Mind

The 7 Basic Emotional Systems



SEEKING
RAGE/ANGER
FEAR/ANXIETY
LUST
CARE
PANIC/GRIEF
PLAY

Higher Order Emotional Organization

Basic Emotions and the Construction of Self

Discussion



Affective Neuroscience and the Science of Personality

Social Dominance

Social Dominance and Social Structures

Dominance, Territorial Control, and Power

Systemic Emotional Instability and Dominance

The Social Dominance Theory of Sidanius and Pratto



A Case of Individual and Institutional Interaction Effects
Empirical Findings

Discussion

Chapter Discussion

Chapter 12: Review and Reflections

The Question of Motivation

Negotiation and Balance of Personal and Social Motivations

The Unique Significance of Original Vulnerability

Belonging and Tension

The Representational Realm of Experience and the Significance of Field Theory

The Question of the Progression of Competencies

Emotion as Basic Motivation and Driver of Maturation

The Primal Influence of Emotion

The Integration of Field Theory and Affective Neuroscience

Systemic Regulation of Motives and Emotions: Benevolence and Competition

The Complementarity of Personal and Social Identities

The Liabilities of Intelligence and the Assertion of Social Power

Self-Representations and the Control of Space and Power

The Question of Will Revisited

References

Index

About the Author