Gods and Cults in Scandinavian Rock Carvings (eBook)

CHAPTER TWO

Theoretical Framework

Brief Overview of Archaeological Theory

In the study of Scandinavian rock art, it is easy to assume a post-processual archaeological lens, where interpretations can become highly speculative and sometimes unrealistic. The primary reasons for this are the lack of written sources and the limited archaeological material, which is confined to artifact finds and the actual rock surfaces. The post-processual approach in archaeology originates from French literary theory, whose aim is to create a broader understanding of human beings than the more limited view in a traditional sense, where "humanity" in humanism rarely includes all people and where rights and resources are distributed based on race, gender, or class (Fredengren, 2013).

Post-processual archaeology as a theoretical approach to archaeology emphasizes the subjective and interpretive nature of archaeological knowledge, as well as the role of individual agency and social context in shaping human behavior.

Post-processual archaeologists argue that archaeological knowledge is always constructed through interpretation and that the role of the archaeologist is to critically analyze the assumptions and biases that shape this interpretation. They also emphasize the importance of considering the social, cultural, and political context in which archaeological research takes place.

However, in the author's opinion, this approach can sometimes create friction with more scientific approaches and lead to more fiction than facts in the interpretations.

The author is generally skeptical of highly speculative interpretations in archaeology, which is why Johan Ling's research on dating with shorelines in relation to rock art localities, as well as isotope research that locates the origin of bronze metals and establishes the trade networks that were created during the Bronze Age, are highly palatable from a scientific perspective. The trade networks as we will see, brings credence to the idea of religious and cultural appropriation and exchange that could have evolved bronze age religion.

Kristiansen and Larsson's model, which is based on a more holistic approach to the Bronze Age and rock art, provides guidance in finding a middle ground between the highly speculative post-processual interpretation of archaeology and the natural scientific approach. Here, ethnography from a large geographic area is brought together within the traces of trade networks, which are then interpreted - and not solely within the framework of classical Marxist archaeological theory on status, class, and hierarchies.

Marxist archaeological theory, rooted in the principles of historical materialism, emphasizes the role of economic and social structures in shaping human societies and cultures. While this perspective can provide valuable insights into the complex interplay between social forces and material culture, it may also lead to incorrect interpretations when applied dogmatically or in isolation from other perspectives. A rigid adherence to Marxist theory can sometimes result in an overemphasis on economic factors and class struggle, neglecting other significant cultural, political, and religious dimensions of past societies. As with any theoretical approach, it is crucial to employ a more comprehensive, multi-faceted framework that considers a wide range of factors in order to avoid misinterpretations and attain a more nuanced understanding of the archaeological record.

Describing social, religious, and cultural expressions in the past is associated with a range of issues. This is particularly true when attempting to reconstruct cosmology from the already limited archaeological material available from the Bronze Age. To clarify, the issue at hand pertains to the use of post-processual approaches in research, which places emphasis on the researcher and their role. It is important for the researcher to prioritize seeking truth and knowledge rather than searching for evidence to support preexisting ideological perspectives. This is particularly relevant in exploring potential connections between the cosmology and cult practices of the Bronze Age and those of the Iron Age, as in the present book. Moving forward, it is essential to acknowledge that rock art localities may convey a religious-magical narrative, if not wholly, then at least partly.

Previous research

The Scandinavian rock carvings have been the subject of speculation and interpretation since the 17th century. In 1627, the well-known rock carving "The Shoemaker" at Bråteberget in Bohuslän was depicted by schoolmaster and physician in Kristiania (Oslo), Peder Alfssön. The image was sent to Professor Ole Worm, doctor to the King of Denmark, in Copenhagen, but would not circulate publicly until 1784 in Suhm’s Samlingar til den Danske Historie (Fredell, 2003).

In 1874, Oscar Montelius stated in his article Sur les sculptés de rochers de la Suéde that the rock carvings belonged to the Bronze Age. Many of the rock carving localities that are known today were discovered during the diligent inventorying of the 1800s and 1900s. Prominent in this work is L. Baltzer, who marked a milestone in Scandinavian rock art research with the publication of Hällristningar från Bohuslän 1881-1890 - Glyphes des Rochers du Bohuslän (Fredell, 2003).

Lauritz Baltzer (1860-1923) was a Danish archaeologist who specialized in the prehistoric period of Denmark and Scandinavia. He conducted extensive excavations at numerous prehistoric localities throughout Denmark and published many articles and books on his findings. Baltzer was particularly interested in the Bronze Age and Iron Age cultures of Denmark, and he made significant contributions to the study of these periods through his excavations and analyses of artifacts. His work remains an important reference for scholars of Scandinavian prehistory.

In the early 1900s, the interpretation of Scandinavian rock carvings that is currently valid, was formed based on the communication of a religious belief. In 1927, Oscar Almgren published Hällristningar och Kultbruk, which systematically goes through various motifs and presents religious and cosmological interpretations. Almgren draws parallels to other contemporary European and Egyptian mythological and religious beliefs, something that is significantly reinforced much later by Johan Ling's (2014) research on the isotopes and origin of bronze metals and what it means in terms of trade networks, and scientific proof thereof that supports the idea of cultural and religious exchanges.

Åke Ohlmark's Hällristningars gudar (1963) continues this religious interpretation of the Scandinavian rock carving localities and interprets and tries to highlight parallels with the gods that appear during the Iron Age and the later Viking Age. Both Almgren's and Ohlmark's works have been of great inspiration for this book and can be considered extremely relevant for contemporary rock art research trying to establish potential ties and continuum with cosmological and religious beliefs of later eras.

Much of the contemporary research on rock carvings that places the carvings in a cosmological perspective is derived from archaeologist Flemming Kaul's research, who compared and analyzed 420 artifacts (primarily razor blades) from the Bronze Age in his thesis Ships on Bronzes (1998). The bronze objects are decorated with iconographic motifs that resemble the aesthetic expression of the rock carvings but in a much more detailed form. Kaul's view after the analysis is that much of the cosmological and religious thoughts from the Bronze Age can be reconstructed from the motifs and portray a common myth about the sun's journey across the sky. This view is echoed, for example, by Fredell, Goldhaun, Kristiansson, and Larsson, among others.

When considering more contemporary research, Åsa Fredell and her research in connection with her dissertation emerge as an important component in the understanding of the rock carvings as a deliberate means of communication. According to Åsa Fredell (2003), the understanding of the relationship between the oral traditions and the figurative expressions is crucial in order to be able to answer the question of what the images communicate. Fredell relies on two case studies in Tanum and Norrköping, where the internal relationship of the rock carvings is analyzed and placed in a broader perspective through comparisons with other archaeological material, such as razor knives and hanging vessels (Fredell, 2003).

Fredell examines the communicated messages and narratives of the rock carvings and relates them to how ideology and cosmology can be understood based on the associations given to the viewer. Even in Fredell's material and research, there is a measure of cosmological continuity with the mythological development of the Iron Age, where common creation myths and ideological messages are passed down over time.

Kristian Kristiansson and Thomas B. Larsson made a significant contribution to Bronze Age research and rock art research with The Rise of Bronze Age Society (2005), where the focus is shifted from the common local archaeological...