Art-of-Living (eBook)

Bernhard Schmitz,  Prof. Dr., holds a full professorship at the department of psychology of the University of Technology, Darmstadt, Germany.He studied mathematics at the university of Düsseldorf and psychology at the University of Technology (TU) Berlin. Both studies he finished with a diploma.He got his doctoral degree at the Free University of Berlin, Germany, and his habilitation at the TU Berlin. He worked for more than 20 years at the Max-Planck-Institute for Human Development in Berlin, former directors P.M. Roeder, Paul B. Baltes and J. Baumert.The research of B. Schmitz deals with trainings in self-regulation, diaries and time-series analyses and, now with positive psychology, especially with art-of-living.He published numerous articles and books about time-series and self-regulation. He is member of the editorial board of “Metacognition and Learning” and “Learning and Instruction”. He was for four years editor of the most important German psychological journal “Psychologische Rundschau”.

Foreword 6
Acknowledgements 9
Contents 10
Ways for Living a Good Life 15
References 16
1 Introduction: Advantages of Using the Concept Art-of-Living 17
1.1 Introduction 17
1.1.1 Background: Veenhoven’s Discrimination for Ways to Lead a Good Life and its Results 17
1.2 Criteria for Happiness as Indirect Advice for Ways to Achieve Happiness 18
1.2.1 Subjective Well-Being (SWB) 19
1.2.2 Psychological Well-Being (PBW) 19
1.2.3 Eudaimonia and Hedonia 20
1.2.4 Flourishing 20
1.3 Research to Ways of Living a Good Life 22
1.3.1 Veenhoven’s Classic Views 22
1.3.2 Wisdom 22
1.3.3 Self-Determination Theory (SDT) 23
1.3.4 Strengths and Virtues 24
1.3.5 Orientations to Happiness (OTH) 24
1.3.6 Conclusion: Research About Ways to Happiness 25
1.4 Behavior and Strategies to Enhance Well-Being 26
1.4.1 Fordyce 26
1.4.2 Happiness Increasing Strategies (HIS) 26
1.4.3 Happiness Inducing Behaviors (HIB) 27
1.4.4 Meta-Analyses of Interventions of PP 28
1.4.5 Conclusion 28
1.5 Our Own Concept: Overview 29
1.5.1 Our Criteria for a Concept for Art-of-Living 29
1.5.2 Philosophical Background: Wilhelm Schmid 31
1.5.2.1 Body 32
1.5.2.2 Soul 32
1.5.2.3 Mind 32
1.5.3 Our Model of the Art-of-Living 33
1.6 Summary and Conclusion 35
References 35
2 Development of a Questionnaire Measuring Art-of-Living 38
2.1 Introduction 38
2.1.1 Questions Regarding the Concept 38
2.1.2 Questions Regarding the Instrument and Its Validity, Reliability and Factorial Structure 38
2.1.3 Sequence of Studies 39
2.2 Study 1: Preliminary Combined Qualitative and Quantitative Survey: How Do People Think About Art-of-Living? 39
2.2.1 Method Study 1 39
2.2.2 Results of Study 1 41
2.2.2.1 Research Question 1, 2, 3 41
2.3 Study 2: The Questionnaire Measuring Art-of-Living 42
2.3.1 Method of Study 2 42
2.3.1.1 Art-of-Living Questionnaire 42
2.3.1.2 Sample 44
2.3.1.3 Measures for Validation 44
Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) 44
Social Desirability 45
2.3.2 Results of Study 2 45
2.3.2.1 Overall Art-of-Living-Score 45
2.3.2.2 Demographic Variables 45
2.3.2.3 Research Questions 5, 6, and 7 45
2.3.2.4 Research Questions 8 and 9 47
2.3.2.5 Research Question 4: Are There Different Types of Art-of-Living? 51
2.3.2.6 Research Question 2: Can Art-of-Living Be Learned? 51
2.3.2.7 Research Question 3: Is There Only One Way to Live a Full Life? 52
2.4 Discussion Study 1 and 2 53
2.4.1 Limitations Study 1 and 2 53
2.4.2 Outlook Study 1 and 2 54
2.5 Study 3 55
2.5.1 Art-of-Living Questionnaire: Revised Edition 55
2.5.1.1 Was the Revision’s Outcome Satisfactory? 56
2.6 Study 4 56
2.6.1 A Shortened Form of the Art-of-Living Questionnaire 57
2.7 Overall Discussion 58
References 58
3 Validation Studies for Art-of-Living 60
3.1 Relationships of Art-of-Living to Different Constructs of Well-Being 60
3.1.1 Introduction 60
3.1.1.1 Concept of Authentic Happiness (AHI) 60
3.1.1.2 Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS) 61
3.1.1.3 Depression 61
3.1.2 Method 62
3.1.2.1 Sample 62
3.1.2.2 Instruments 62
Authentic Happiness Inventory (AHI) 62
Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS) 63
Questionnaire for Psychological Wellbeing (PWB) 63
Questionnaire for Eudaimonic Well-Being (EWB) 63
Beck-Depression-Inventory (BDI) 64
3.1.3 Results 64
3.2 Validation: Key Constructs in Positive Psychology—Relationships Between the Art-of-Living and Flourishing 66
3.2.1 Introduction 66
3.2.1.1 Research Objectives 66
3.2.2 Method 67
3.2.2.1 Sample 67
3.2.2.2 Instruments 67
Art-of-Living 67
Flourishing 67
Seligman’s PERMA-Profiler 68
Keyes Mental Health Continuum 69
Huppert & So (European Social Survey)
Diener et al. Flourishing Scale 69
3.2.3 Results 69
3.2.4 Discussion 70
3.3 Relationship of Art-of-Living with Personality (Big Five), Anxiety, Emotional Intelligence, and Mindfulness 71
3.3.1 Introduction 71
3.3.2 Method 72
3.3.2.1 Sample 72
3.3.2.2 Instruments 72
Big Five Inventory-Short Version (BFI-10) 72
Perceived Stress Questionnaire (PSQ) 72
Emotional Intelligence 73
Mindfulness 73
3.3.3 Results 73
3.3.3.1 Relationships Between Art-of-Living and the Big Five 73
3.3.3.2 Incremental Validity of Art-of-Living Compared to the Big Five with Respect to Well-Being 74
3.3.3.3 Art-of-Living and Anxiety, Emotional Intelligence and Mindfulness 75
3.3.4 Discussion 75
3.4 Validation: Key Constructs of Positive Psychology—Ways of Leading a Good Life Relationships Between Art-of-Living and Strength and Virtues and Orientation to Happiness 76
3.4.1 Introduction 76
3.4.1.1 Strengths and Virtues (Peterson and Seligman 2004) 76
3.4.1.2 Orientation to Happiness 77
3.4.2 Method 77
3.4.2.1 Sample 77
3.4.2.2 Instruments 77
Art-of-Living 77
Short Version of the Values in Action Inventory of Strengths (VIA-24) 78
Orientation to Happiness (OTH) 78
3.4.3 Results 78
3.4.3.1 Art-of-Living and Strengths and Virtues 78
Correlations of Art-of-Living with Orientation to Happiness (OTH) 80
3.4.4 Discussion 80
3.5 Validation: Related Constructs—Resilience, Coherence, Self-Regulation and Wisdom and Their Relationships to the Art-of-Living 81
3.5.1 Introduction 81
3.5.1.1 Resilience 81
3.5.1.2 Sense of Coherence 81
3.5.1.3 Self-Regulation 82
3.5.1.4 Wisdom 82
Empirical Approach to Measure Individual Wisdom 82
The Berlin Wisdom Paradigm 83
The Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale (3D-WS) 83
3.5.2 Method 84
3.5.2.1 Sample 84
3.5.2.2 Instruments 85
Resilience Scale (RS-11) 85
Sense of Coherence Scale (SOC-13) 85
Self-Regulation Questionnaire 85
The 3D-WS for Measuring Wisdom 85
3.5.3 Results 86
3.6 Art-of-Living: Measuring the Construct Using the Situational Judgement Test 87
3.6.1 Introduction 87
3.6.1.1 What Is a Situational Judgement Test (SJT)? 88
3.6.2 Method 88
3.6.2.1 Sample 88
3.6.2.2 Instruments 88
Well-Being 88
Happiness 88
Art-of-Living-Questionnaire 89
Art-of-Living SJT 89
3.6.3 Results 90
3.6.4 Discussion 90
3.7 Validity of Self- and Peer-Assessment for the Art-of-Living 90
3.7.1 Introduction 90
3.7.2 Method 91
3.7.2.1 Sample 91
3.7.2.2 Instruments 92
3.7.3 Results 92
3.7.3.1 Relationship Between Self- and Peer-Assessment of Art-of-Living 92
3.7.3.2 Comparison of Self- and Peer-Assessment Regarding Their Level 92
3.7.4 Discussion 93
3.8 Art-of-Living in Working Life 94
3.8.1 Introduction 94
3.8.1.1 Working from the Perspective of Art-of-Living 94
3.8.1.2 Self-Fulfillment in Working Life 94
3.8.1.3 Components of Subjective Occupational Success 95
3.8.2 Method 96
3.8.2.1 Sample 96
3.8.2.2 Instruments 96
Art-of-Living Questionnaire 96
Measuring Self-Fulfillment in Working Life 97
Measuring Subjective Occupational Success 97
3.8.3 Results 98
3.8.3.1 Relationship Between Art-of-Living and Self-Fulfillment in Working Life 98
Relationship Between Art-of-Living and the Components of Subjective Occupational Success 99
3.8.4 Discussion 99
3.9 Summary 100
References 101
4 Measurement of Art-of-Living in Daily Life by Diaries 107
4.1 Introduction 107
4.2 Method 108
4.2.1 Sample 108
4.2.2 Procedure 108
4.2.3 Instruments 108
4.2.3.1 Pretest and Posttest 108
4.2.3.2 Diary 109
4.2.4 Psychometric Properties of the Diary 109
4.3 Results 111
4.3.1 Validation of the Diary 111
4.3.2 Relationship Between Art-of-Living, Current Events and Applied Strategies 113
4.3.3 Synchronous Relationships Between Art-of-Living, Affect, and Well-Being 114
4.3.4 Asynchronous Relationships Between Art-of-Living and Well-Being 116
4.3.5 Relationship Between Dynamics in Affect and Overall Well-Being 117
4.4 Summary and Overall Discussion 120
Acknowledgments 121
References 121
5 Interventions to Enhance Art-of-Living 123
5.1 Comparison of a Cognitive and a Combined Cognitive/Body-Related Intervention for Enhancing Art-of-Living and Happiness 123
5.1.1 Introduction 123
5.1.1.1 Art-of-Living 124
5.1.1.2 Positive Psychology 124
5.1.1.3 Positive Attitude Towards Life 125
5.1.1.4 Optimism 125
5.1.1.5 Happiness 126
5.1.2 Interventions of Previous Studies 126
5.1.3 Hypotheses 128
5.1.4 Method 129
5.1.4.1 Experimental Design 129
5.1.4.2 Participants 129
5.1.4.3 Measures 130
Art-of-Living Questionnaire 130
Optimism from the Revision of the Life Orientation Test (LOT-R) 131
Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) 131
Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS) 132
Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI-II) 132
5.1.4.4 Procedure 132
Training Session 1, Experimental Group 1: Cognitive Training 133
Session 1, Experimental Group 2: Cognitive and Body-Related Training 133
Session 2, Experimental Group 1: Cognitive Training 134
Session 2, Experimental Group 2: Cognitive and Body-Related Training 134
5.1.4.5 Analyses 135
5.1.5 Results 135
5.1.5.1 Descriptive Results 135
Comparison of the Groups in the Pretest 135
Calculation of the Differences Between Pre- and Posttest for the Control Group and the Experimental Groups 136
5.1.6 Discussion 139
5.1.6.1 Limitations and Future Research Opportunities 141
5.1.7 Conclusion 142
5.2 Spoilt for Choice? How Does the Kind of Assignment for Strategies of Art-of-Living Effect Training Results? 143
5.2.1 Introduction 143
5.2.2 Hypotheses 144
5.2.3 Method 144
5.2.3.1 Participants 144
5.2.3.2 Measures 145
Art-of-Living Questionnaire 145
Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) 145
Diary 145
5.2.3.3 Procedure 146
General Strategies for All Groups 146
Strategies for Group 1 146
Strategies for Group 2 148
Strategies for Group 3 148
5.2.4 Results 150
5.2.4.1 Analyses of the Pretest-Posttest Comparisons 150
5.2.4.2 Analyses of the Diaries 150
5.2.4.3 Choice of Strategies in the Autonomous Group 1 153
5.2.5 Discussion 154
5.2.5.1 Limitations and Future Research Opportunities 155
5.2.5.2 Conclusion 155
5.3 Happiness at Work. A Training to Increase Art-of-Living at Work 155
5.3.1 Introduction 155
5.3.2 Goals and Hypothesis 157
5.3.3 Method 157
5.3.3.1 Design 157
5.3.3.2 Participants 158
5.3.3.3 Measures 158
Art-of-Living Questionnaire 158
Resilience Scale (RS-11) 158
Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) 159
5.3.3.4 Procedure 159
Session 1: Positive Attitude Towards Life, Coping and Self-Knowledge 159
Session 2: Coping, Openness and Self-Efficacy 160
Session 3: Self-Knowledge, Self-Determined Way of Living and Positive Attitude Towards Life 162
Session 4: Self-Knowledge 163
Diary for the Support of Transfer into Daily Life 164
5.3.4 Results 164
5.3.4.1 Testing of Hypothesis 1 164
5.3.4.2 Testing of Hypothesis 2 168
5.3.5 Discussion 169
5.3.5.1 The Effect of Training 169
5.3.5.2 Results of the Follow-Up 170
5.3.5.3 Limitations of the Study 170
5.3.5.4 Conclusion 171
5.4 A Web-Based Adaptive Training for the Art-of-Living 171
5.4.1 Introduction 171
5.4.2 Hypotheses 173
5.4.3 Method 173
5.4.3.1 Participants 173
5.4.3.2 Measures 175
5.4.3.3 Procedure 176
Welcoming Video 176
Conclusion Video 176
Which Specific Contents Did the Training Have? 180
5.4.4 Results 181
5.4.4.1 Quantitative Results 181
5.4.4.2 Qualitative Evaluation of the Training 182
5.4.5 Discussion 182
5.4.5.1 Effectiveness of the Online-Training 182
5.4.5.2 Limitations 183
5.4.5.3 Conclusion 183
References 183
6 Summary and Outlook 189
6.1 Art-of-Living in the Arts 189
6.1.1 Savoring/Pavarotti 190
6.1.2 Openness/Dalai Lama 191
6.1.3 Coping/Eric Clapton 192
6.1.4 Serenity/Henry David Thoreau 192
6.1.5 Self-Determined Way of Living/Mandela 193
6.1.6 Summary: Art-of-Living in the Arts 194
6.2 Nomination Study for Art-of-Living 194
6.2.1 Process of Nomination 195
6.2.2 Nomination Study 196
6.2.3 Main Study 197
6.2.3.1 Sample 197
6.2.3.2 Interview Guideline 197
6.2.4 Results 199
6.2.4.1 Data Analysis 199
6.2.4.2 Quantitative Analysis 199
Results for Hypothesis 1 199
Results for the Research Question 199
6.2.4.3 Qualitative Analysis 201
6.2.5 Summary 203
6.3 Summary 204
6.3.1 Summing Up on the Introduction 204
6.3.2 Summary on the Questionnaire 205
6.3.3 Summary on the Validation 205
6.3.4 Summary of Process Analyses Based on Diary Data 206
6.3.5 Summary of Intervention Studies 207
6.3.6 Limitations 208
6.3.7 Perspectives 209
References 209