Social Exclusion (eBook)

Paolo Riva is a post-doctoral research fellow at University of Milano-Bicocca. His research interests lie broadly in social influence processes with a specific focus on social exclusion. Specifically, he examines the consequences of exclusion and the possible strategies that can buffer against and reduce its effects. In a related vein, he is also interested in the neuromodulation of emotion regulation processes.   Jennifer Eck is a post-doctoral research fellow at the University of Mannheim. Her main line of research focuses on social exclusion, with a specific emphasis on psychological strategies that help buffer against the negative impact of social exclusion. Her research interests further include lie detection, the self, and assimilation and contrast.

Dedication 6
Contents 8
The Many Faces of Social ExclusionPaolo Riva and Jennifer Eck 10
References 16
About the Editors 18
Contributors 20
Part I: Social Exclusion as a Field of Research 22
Social Exclusion in Everyday Life 23
Rejection: Direct Negative Attention 25
Dehumanizing Language 25
Microaggressions 26
Ostracism: Being Ignored 27
Averted Eye Gaze 28
Information Exclusion 29
Language Exclusion 29
Uncomfortable Silences 31
Feeling Ostracized When Not Directly Being Ignored 33
Directions for Future Research on Social Exclusion 35
Further Theoretical Integration of Exclusion Types 35
Exclusion and Psychological Mechanisms 36
Exclusion and Emotional Responses 36
Conclusion 37
References 38
Methods for Investigating Social Exclusion 44
Categories of Social Exclusion Paradigms 45
Interacting with Computer Avatars 45
Interacting with Other Individuals 46
Written Material Manipulations 46
Considerations When Choosing a Category of Social Exclusion Paradigms 47
Alternative Considerations 47
Descriptions of Social Exclusion Paradigms 48
Interacting with Computer Avatars 48
Cyberball 48
Eye Gaze Paradigms 52
Ostracism Online Paradigm 52
Missing Out on Information (Being Out of the Loop) 53
Interacting with Other Individuals 54
Get-Acquainted Paradigms 54
Chat Room or Text-Message Paradigms 55
Considerations for Using Chat Room or Text-Message Paradigms. Both of these approaches represent experiences individuals have frequently—especially not being messaged back. To test social exclusion effects in these contexts, a researcher requires sig 56
Exchanging Videotapes Paradigm 56
Additional Paradigms 57
Written Material Manipulations of Social Exclusion 59
Reliving and Pre-living Exclusion 59
Future Life Alone 61
Conclusion 62
References 62
Part II: Psychological Approaches to Social Exclusion 67
Research in Social Psychology: Consequences of Short- and Long-Term Social Exclusion 68
Consequences of Short-Term Social Exclusion 70
Consequences of Long-Term Social Exclusion and Isolation 75
Models, Mechanisms, and Moderators 78
Conclusion 83
References 83
Research in Social Neuroscience: How Perceived Social Isolation, Ostracism, and Romantic Rejection Affect Our Brain 90
The Perceived Social Environment 90
Methodological Approaches 91
Loneliness as a Case Study of Social Exclusion 92
Neural Correlates of Social Exclusion: Loneliness as a Model 95
Neural Correlates of Social Exclusion: Ostracism and Romantic Rejection as Models 97
Conclusion 100
References 102
Research in Developmental Psychology: Social Exclusion Among Children and Adolescents 106
Intergroup Social Exclusion in Childhood and Adolescence 108
Stereotypes and Denial of Opportunity 108
Norms and Exclusion 109
Social Identity and Prejudice 112
Developmental Outcomes of Intergroup Social Exclusion 113
Fairness and Inclusion in Childhood and Adolescence 115
Perceptions of Discrimination 115
Support of Rights 116
Intergroup Contact and Inclusion 118
Conclusion 119
References 121
Research in Educational Psychology: Social Exclusion in School 126
Social Exclusion in School Contexts: Conceptualization and Measurement 127
Conceptualization of Social Exclusion 128
Peer Group Rejection 128
Recipients of Peers’ Exclusionary Behaviors 129
Measurement of Social Exclusion 129
Peer Group Rejection 129
Recipients of Peers’ Exclusionary Behaviors 130
Peer Group Rejection and Behavioral Exclusion: Distinct Aspects of Social Exclusion? 132
Theory and Research on the Origins and Correlates of Social Exclusion in School 135
What Causes Children to Be Socially Excluded by Their Classmates? 135
Child Characteristics and Deviation from Peer Norms or Values 136
Classroom Environments and Dynamics 137
Does School-Based Social Exclusion Affect School Engagement and Achievement? 138
Does School-Based Social Exclusion Affect Children’s Psychological Adjustment? 140
Does School-Based Social Exclusion Affect Children’s Perceptions of Peers? 143
Conclusion 144
References 145
Research in Work and Organizational Psychology: Social Exclusion in the Workplace 150
Workplace Social Exclusion: Conceptualization and Manifestations 151
Why Social Exclusion Occurs in the Workplace 154
The Social Control Model of Exclusion 155
The Impact of Workplace Social Exclusion 157
Attributions 158
Identity 159
Social Benefits 160
Alternatives 160
Managing Social Exclusion in the Workplace 161
Training Programs 163
Creating an Inclusive Environment 165
Conclusion 165
References 167
Research in Clinical Psychology: Social Exclusion and Psychological Disorders 173
Anxiety Disorders 173
Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) 174
Panic Disorder (PD) and Agoraphobia 175
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) 176
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) 176
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) 176
Depression 177
Somatic Symptom Disorders 178
Eating Disorders 179
Severe Psychopathology 180
Bipolar Disorders 180
Schizophrenia 181
Personality Disorders 182
Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) 182
Other Personality Disorders 183
Discussion 183
Transdiagnostic Consequences of Exclusion 185
Conclusion 186
References 186
Research in Social Gerontology: Social Exclusion of Aging Adults 193
Research on Social Exclusion of Older Adults 195
Research on Social Isolation 197
Research on Ageism 200
Outcomes of Social Exclusion 201
Efforts to Counter Social Exclusion 203
Volunteering as a “Best Practice” in Reducing Exclusion 203
Conclusion 205
References 207
Part III: Psychological Strategies and Brain Mechanisms to Reduce the Negative Consequences of Social Exclusion 212
Emotion Regulation Following Social Exclusion: Psychological and Behavioral Strategies 213
A Two-Dimensional Model of Emotion Regulation Following Social Exclusion 213
Cognitive Avoidance Strategies 215
Suppression 215
Distraction 216
Focused Attention 218
Cognitive Approach Strategies 219
Rumination 219
Positive Reappraisal 221
Acceptance 223
Behavioral Avoidance Strategies 224
Physical Exercise 224
Alcohol and Other Drugs 225
Violent Media and Gambling 226
Behavioral Approach Strategies 228
Aggression 228
Seeking Social Connections 229
Directions for Future Research: Regulating Emotions Following Social Exclusion 230
Individual Differences 230
Controlled and Automatic Processes of Emotion Regulation 231
Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Emotion Regulation 232
Social and Physical Pain Overlap 233
Psychological Flexibility 233
Chronic Social Exclusion 234
Conclusion 234
References 235
Coping with or Buffering Against the Negative Impact of Social Exclusion on Basic Needs: A Review of Strategies 240
Strategies to Facilitate Psychological Recovery from Social Exclusion 241
Reminders of Social Bonds 242
Social Surrogates 245
Parasocial Attachments 245
Comfort Food 247
Nature Connectedness 248
Religion 248
Strategies to Buffer the Reflexive Responses to Social Exclusion 250
Social Companionship 250
Belonging to a Majority 252
Money 254
Powerful Positions 255
Discussion 257
Conclusion 257
References 258
Brain Mechanisms to Regulate Negative Reactions to Social Exclusion 263
The Social Brain and the Threat of Exclusion 263
The Neuroscience of Exclusion: Automatic and Controlled Components 264
The Automatic Response to Social Pain 265
Controlled Brain Responses to Social Exclusion 266
Regulatory Strategies for Managing Social Pain 268
Reappraisal Versus Suppression 268
Affect Labeling 269
Mindfulness 269
Self-Affirmation 270
Social Support 270
Summary 271
Regulatory Strategies for Promoting Affiliative Instead of Aggressive Responses to Exclusion 271
Regulatory Strategies for Combating Self-Control Failure After Exclusion 273
Regulatory Strategies for Reducing Deleterious Peripheral Responses to Exclusion 273
Regulatory Strategies for Reliving Social Exclusion 274
Tailoring Regulatory Strategies for Individual Differences 275
Alexithymia 275
Fear of Pain and Social Anxiety 276
Attachment Style 277
Narcissism 277
Rejection Sensitivity 278
Self-Esteem 278
Important Caveats 279
Conclusion 279
References 280
Part IV: Final Assessment 286
Bridging the Gap Between Different Psychological Approaches to Understanding and Reducing the Impact of Social Exclusion 287
The Importance of a Consistent Terminology 288
The Study of Social Exclusion 289
Theories of Social Exclusion 292
Interventions to Reduce Social Exclusion Effects 294
Conclusion 297
References 298
Index 300