Exercise-Cognition Interaction (eBook)

EXERCISE–COGNITION INTERACTION: NEUROSCIENCE PERSPECTIVES 4
Copyright 5
Contents 6
Contributors 10
1 - History of Research into the Acute Exercise–Cognition Interaction: A Cognitive Psychology Approach 12
INTRODUCTION 12
Development of Theoretical Rationales 12
Summary 16
EMPIRICAL RESEARCH 17
Exercise Protocols 17
Defining Exercise Intensities 18
Task-Type Effects 19
Attention/Perception Tasks 19
Working Memory Tasks 20
Flanker Task 21
Simon Task 22
Stroop Color Task 22
Go/No Go Task 22
Stop Signal Task 23
Random Number Generation Task 23
Wisconsin Card Sorting Task 23
Tower of London Task 23
Operation Span and Reading Span Tasks 24
Trail Making Test 24
n-Back Test 24
Automatic Tasks 25
Learning/Long-Term Memory Tasks 26
Research Results 26
Research Examining the Inverted-U Effect 26
Results of Studies Comparing Performance at Rest to Those at Moderate Intensity Exercise Only 27
Results Comparing Performance at Rest to Those during and following Heavy Exercise Only 27
Summary 30
DISCUSSION 30
Exercise Issues 31
Task Type × Intensity Effects 31
Moderate Intensity Exercise 32
Heavy Exercise 33
Learning/Long-Term Memory 33
CONCLUSION 33
References 33
2 - The History of Research on Chronic Physical Activity and Cognitive Performance 40
INTRODUCTION 40
RESEARCH WITH OLDER ADULTS 43
RESEARCH WITH CHILDREN 43
RESEARCH WITH YOUNG ADULTS 44
THEORETICAL APPROACHES 45
MECHANISMS AND MEDIATORS 46
MODERATORS 48
CONCLUSIONS 49
References 50
3 - Animal Models of Exercise–Brain Interactions 54
INTRODUCTION 54
RODENT EXERCISE MODELS 55
Voluntary Wheel Running 55
Forced Treadmill Running 56
Strength Training 57
NEUROLOGICAL EFFECTS OF EXERCISE 58
EXERCISE AND THE HIPPOCAMPUS 59
Anatomy of the Hippocampus 60
Acute Effect of Exercise on Neuronal Activation of the Hippocampus 60
Chronic Effects of Exercise on Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis 63
Stages of Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis 63
Modulation of Adult Neurogenesis from Exercise 64
FUNCTIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF EXERCISE-INDUCED ADULT NEUROGENESIS 66
Role of Exercise-Induced Adult Neurogenesis in Learning and Memory 67
CONCLUSIONS 68
References 69
4 - Beyond the Catecholamines Hypothesis for an Acute Exercise–Cognition Interaction: A Neurochemical Perspective 76
INTRODUCTION 76
Cooper’s (1973) Original Catecholamines Hypothesis for an Acute Exercise–Cognition Interaction 77
CATECHOLAMINES AND THE ACUTE EXERCISE–COGNITION INTERACTION 77
Plasma Catecholamines Responses to Exercise: Effects of Intensity and Duration 77
Incremental Exercise to Exhaustion 78
Moderate to Long Duration, Low and Moderate Intensity Exercise 79
Acute Exercise and Increases in Brain Catecholamines Concentrations 79
Empirical Evidence for an Acute Exercise-Induced Increase in Brain Concentrations of Dopamine and Noradrenaline 80
Catecholamines and Cognition at Rest and during Exercise 81
Catecholamines, Stress Level, Task Type, and Cognition 83
WORKING MEMORY TASKS 83
ATTENTION/PERCEPTION TASKS 84
LEARNING/LONG-TERM MEMORY TASKS 85
Summary 85
HPA AXIS HORMONES AND THE EXERCISE–COGNITION INTERACTION 85
Brain HPA Axis Hormones during Exercise 86
HPA Axis Hormones and Cognition 87
Summary 88
BRAIN-DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR 89
BDNF, Acute Exercise and Cognition 89
Empirical Evidence for the Roles of Neurochemicals in the Acute Exercise–Cognition Interaction 90
The Acute Exercise–Neurochemicals–Cognition Interaction and the Inverted-U Hypothesis 90
The Acute Exercise–Neurochemicals–Cognition Interaction: Effects of Moderate Intensity Exercise 91
Role of BDNF 96
Moderating Effects of Task Type 97
MODERATE AND LONG DURATION, MODERATE INTENSITY EXERCISE 97
Possible Effects of 5-Hydroxytryptamine 98
The Acute Exercise–Neurochemicals–Cognition Interaction: Effects of Heavy Exercise 99
Working Memory Tasks 100
Attention/Perception Tasks 102
Learning/Memory Tasks 103
Studies Comparing Neurochemical Concentrations during Exercise, while Undertaking Cognitive Tests, with Those in an Exercise-Onl... 104
CONCLUSION 105
References 105
5 - Acute Exercise and Event-Related Potential: Current Status and Future Prospects 116
INTRODUCTION 116
EVENT-RELATED POTENTIALS 117
P3 118
N1, N2, P2, and N4 119
Contingent Negative Variation 119
Error-Related Negativity and Error Positivity 120
ERPS FOLLOWING EXERCISE: IMMEDIATE EFFECTS 120
ERP Measures 121
Type of Cognition 123
Participants 125
Exercise Protocol 126
ERPS FOLLOWING EXERCISE: DELAYED EFFECTS 127
ERP Measures 127
Type of Cognition 129
Participants 131
Exercise Protocol 131
FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS OF ACUTE EXERCISE AND ERPS 132
Type of Cognition 132
Participants 134
Exercise Protocol 135
CONCLUSIONS 136
References 137
6 - Acute Exercise and Cognition: Effects of Cerebral Oxygenation and Blood Flow 142
INTRODUCTION 142
CEREBRAL OXYGENATION AND CEREBRAL BLOOD FLOW DURING EXERCISE 143
COGNITIVE FUNCTION: THE EFFECTS OF CEREBRAL OXYGENATION AND CEREBRAL BLOOD FLOW 145
COGNITIVE FUNCTION UNDER HYPOXIA 149
SUMMARY 152
References 153
7 - The Reticular-Activating Hypofrontality (RAH) Model of Acute Exercise: Current Data and Future Perspectives 158
INTRODUCTION 158
TWO COMPLEMENTARY MECHANISMS INDUCED BY EXERCISE 159
The Reticular-Activating Process 159
The Hypofrontality Process 162
MAIN PREDICTIONS OF THE RAH MODEL 163
ARGUMENTS FOR A FACILITATING EFFECT OF IN-TASK EXERCISE ON TASKS TAPPING IMPLICIT PROCESSES 165
ARGUMENTS FOR A DEACTIVATION OF PREFRONTAL AREAS DURING VIGOROUS EXERCISE 166
ARGUMENTS FOR A DETRIMENTAL EFFECT OF IN-TASK EXERCISE ON TASKS TAPPING EXECUTIVE AND EXPLICIT PROCESSES 169
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES OF THE RAH MODEL 171
Acknowledgment 172
References 172
8 - Chronic Exercise and Cognition in Humans: A Review of the Evidence for a Neurochemical Basis 178
INTRODUCTION 178
BDNF AND THE CHRONIC EXERCISE–COGNITION INTERACTION 179
BDNF and Exercise in Humans 180
BDNF, Chronic Exercise, and Cognition Research in Humans 180
CATECHOLAMINES AND THE CHRONIC EXERCISE–COGNITION INTERACTION 181
Summary 183
Evidence for a Chronic Exercise–Catecholamines–Cognition Interaction 183
Summary 184
HPA AXIS HORMONES AND THE CHRONIC EXERCISE–COGNITION INTERACTION 184
Chronic Exercise and HPA Axis Hormones 185
HPA Axis Hormones, Chronic Exercise, and Cognition Research 186
DISCUSSION 187
FUTURE RESEARCH 189
CONCLUSION 190
References 190
Further Reading 197
9 - The Chronic Exercise–Cognition Interaction: fMRI Research 198
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PROMOTES BETTER MENTAL HEALTH BUT HOW REMAINS AN OPEN QUESTION 198
A BRIEF REVIEW OF THEORETICAL MODELS ON THE MECHANISTIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND MENTAL HEALTH 199
Cardiovascular Fitness Hypothesis 199
Motor Fitness Hypothesis 201
Cerebrovascular Reserve 201
Bioenergetic Effects 202
INTRODUCTION TO FMRI AS A TOOL IN HUMAN NEUROSCIENCE 203
Spatial Resolution 204
Temporal Resolution of the BOLD Response 204
Experimental fMRI Approach 206
Resting-State fMRI 208
THE USE OF FMRI TO TEST THEORIES THAT LINK PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND MENTAL HEALTH 210
Cardiovascular Fitness Hypothesis 210
Motor Fitness Hypothesis 214
Cerebrovascular Reserve 214
Bioenergetic Effects 215
SUMMARY AND OUTSTANDING QUESTIONS 216
References 217
10 - Physical Activity, Fitness, and Cognition: Insights from Neuroelectric Studies 222
INTRODUCTION 222
P3 222
Earlier P3 Studies 223
Temporal Dynamics of Visual Attention 223
Randomized Controlled Trial 224
Types of PA 224
CONTINGENT NEGATIVE VARIATION (CNV) 225
ERROR-RELATED NEGATIVITY (ERN) 226
Conflict Monitoring Theory 227
Dual Mechanisms of Control Theory 227
Task Demands 228
AND EEG TECHNIQUES 229
Academic-Related Cognitive Processes 229
Cognitive Variability 230
Lower-Order Cognitive Processes 231
Functional Connectivity between Brain Regions 232
CONCLUSIONS 233
References 234
11 - Effects of Athletic Fitness on the Exercise–Cognition Interaction 238
INTRODUCTION 238
DEFINING FITNESS 238
STANDARDIZING EXERCISE STRESS 240
TO TRAINING 244
Catecholamines 244
Training Effects and Responses to Undertaking Acute Exercise 244
Training Effects on Brain Concentrations 245
HPA Axis Hormones 246
Training Effects and Responses to Undertaking Acute Exercise 246
Training Effects on Brain Concentrations 246
Trained “Athletes” 247
Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor 248
Serum and Plasma BDNF Concentrations in Physically Active Nonathletes 248
Serum and Plasma BDNF Concentrations in Athletes 249
Brain Morphology 249
SUMMARY 250
EXERCISE EFFECTS ON COGNITION IN ATHLETES 250
Implications for Neuroscience 252
CONCLUSIONS 254
References 254
12 - “Cogito ergo sum” or “ambulo ergo sum”? New Perspectives in Developmental Exercise and Cognition Research 262
INTRODUCTION 262
THE CHRONIC EXERCISE–COGNITION INTERACTION IN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS 263
Brain Correlates of Physical Activity and Fitness Effects on Cognition and Academics 263
Looking for New Pathways of Chronic Exercise–Cognition Interaction 269
THE ACUTE EXERCISE–COGNITION INTERACTION IN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS 270
Brain Correlates of Acute Exercise Effects on Cognition during Development 270
Bringing Cognition into the Gym and Movement into the Classroom 273
THE CHICKEN-AND-EGG PROBLEM IN MOTOR AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES 275
Joint Role of the Frontal Lobe and the Cerebellum 275
Joint Development of Executive Functions and Fundamental Motor Skills 277
TOWARD AN INTEGRATED VIEW ON COGNITION AND “E-MOTION” IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 278
A Neuroscience Perspective on “E-motion” in Children 278
Aiding Executive Function Development by Motion with “E-motion” 280
BRIDGING THEORY AND PRACTICE: FROM NEUROSCIENCE TO TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH 281
Promoting Brain Development by Challenging Movement and Sport Experiences 282
Outlook: What Does Quality Physical Activity Mean for the Child’s Emerging Mind? 284
References 286
13 - Acute Exercise and Cognition in Children and Adolescents: The Roles of Testosterone and Cortisol 294
INTRODUCTION 294
THE HPA AND HPG AXES IN RESPONSE TO STRESS 294
Hormonal Assessment 295
Effects of Cortisol on Cognition 296
Effects of Testosterone on Cognition 296
Effects of Acute Bouts of Exercise on Cortisol 297
Effects of Acute Bouts of Exercise on Testosterone 298
EFFECTS OF ACUTE BOUTS OF EXERCISE ON COGNITION 299
Is the Effect of Acute Exercise on Cognition Mediated by Steroid Hormones? 300
CONCLUSION 302
References 302
14 - The Chronic Exercise–Cognition Interaction in Older Adults 306
INTRODUCTION TO EXERCISE AND COGNITION IN OLDER ADULTS 306
NORMAL AGING OF COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS AND THE BRAIN 306
Cognitive Changes 306
Contemporary Theories on Cognitive Aging 307
Evidence from Functional Neuroimaging 307
Morphological Changes of the Brain 309
Cognitive and Neuronal Plasticity 309
METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO INVESTIGATE THE EXERCISE–COGNITION RELATIONSHIP 310
Study Designs 310
Types and Assessment of Exercise 311
THE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY–BRAIN AND COGNITION–RELATIONSHIP 311
Cardiovascular Exercise and Fitness 311
Effects of Other Types of Exercise and Fitness 315
Resistance Training 315
Motor Coordinative Fitness and Related Exercises 316
Physical Activity Behavior 317
CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR CORRELATES OF EXERCISE–COGNITION INTERACTION IN OLDER ADULTS 318
Cellular Level 318
Molecular Level 321
DOSE–RESPONSE RELATIONS 323
LIMITATIONS IN STUDIES INVESTIGATING THE EXERCISE–COGNITION RELATIONSHIP IN OLDER ADULTS 323
References 324
15 - The Chronic Exercise–Cognition Interaction and Parkinson Disease 332
CAUSES AND SYMPTOMS OF PARKINSON DISEASE 332
THE EFFECTS OF PD ON COGNITION 334
Motor–Cognition Interaction 335
Sensorimotor Cortex Involvement in Cognition 335
Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Involvement in Cognition and Movement 335
Cognitive Impairments in PD 336
Speed of Processing 336
Executive Function 336
Memory 338
Language 338
Visuospatial Processing 339
THE EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON COGNITION 340
Exercise, Neuroplasticity, and Cognition 341
The Effects of Exercise on PD 343
THE EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON COGNITION IN PD 343
FUTURE RESEARCH AND PRACTICAL APPLICATION 345
References 347
16 - The Chronic Exercise–Cognition Interaction and Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease 356
INTRODUCTION 356
THE CHRONIC PHYSICAL EXERCISE–COGNITION INTERACTION IN DEMENTIA 357
Aerobic Exercise 358
Multimodal Exercise 358
THE CHRONIC PHYSICAL EXERCISE–COGNITION INTERACTION IN ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE 360
Aerobic Exercise 360
Resistance Exercise 361
Multimodal Exercise 362
NEUROBIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE RELATED TO COGNITION AND MENTAL HEALTH 365
Biochemical Mechanisms 365
Structural Mechanisms 366
Physiological Mechanisms 367
FINAL CONSIDERATIONS 368
References 369
17 - The Chronic Exercise–Cognition Interaction and Diabetes 374
INTRODUCTION 374
DIABETES MELLITUS AND METABOLIC DETERIORATION 374
Type 2 Diabetes 374
Diabetes Mellitus and Obesity 375
Diabetes Mellitus and Physical Activity 375
THE DIABETIC BRAIN 377
Structural Cerebral Changes in Patients with Diabetes 377
Neurotrophins and Diabetes 377
Inflammation in the Diabetic Brain 378
Blood Glucose Level Influences the Diabetic Brain 379
Insulin Level in the Diabetic Brain 379
CAN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AFFECT THE DIABETIC BRAIN? 380
Physical Activity and BDNF 380
Exercise as an Anti-Inflammatory Mediator 381
Glycemic Control 381
CONCLUSION 381
References 381
18 - The Exercise–Cognition Interaction and ADHD 386
WHAT IS ATTENTION-DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER? 386
ETIOLOGY OF ADHD 387
Neurobiological Factors 387
Genetics 387
Neuroanatomy and Neurochemistry 387
Environmental Factors 388
Neuropsychological Dysfunction 388
DETERMINANTS OF ADHD TRAJECTORIES 389
CURRENT EVIDENCE-BASED TREATMENTS FOR ADHD 390
WHY MIGHT EXERCISE BENEFIT INDIVIDUALS WITH ADHD? 391
Cognition 391
Modulation of Catecholaminergic Neurotransmission 392
Neurogenesis/Angiogenesis via Neurotrophic Factors 392
ON ADHD 393
An Animal Model of ADHD: Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats 393
The Impact of Exercise on Individuals with ADHD 394
Acute Effects of Physical Exercise 394
Executive Functions 394
Nonexecutive Functions 394
Academic Functioning 395
Dopamine Assays 395
Chronic Physical Activity: Correlational Studies 396
Chronic Physical Activity: Experimental Studies 396
Cognitive Functioning 396
Motor Skills 397
Behavior 398
WHERE TO FROM HERE? 399
Exercise is for Everybody 399
“Ain’t What You Do (It’s the Way that You Do It)” 400
Coordination and Resistance Training 400
Exercise as Part of a Multicomponent Intervention 400
Peer Modeling, Reward, and Motivation 401
Begin Exercising when Young and Don’t Stop 401
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 402
References 402
19 - Cognitive Impairment in Breast Cancer Survivors: The Protective Role of Physical Activity, Cardiorespiratory Fitness, and Exercise Training 410
INTRODUCTION 410
PREVALENCE OF COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT IN BREAST CANCER SURVIVORS 411
BREAST CANCER TREATMENT AND BRAIN HEALTH 411
Potential Underlying Mechanisms of CRCI 412
MEASURING COGNITIVE FUNCTION IN BREAST CANCER SURVIVORS 414
The Intersection Between Cancer, Aging, and Physical Function 415
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION IN BREAST CANCER SURVIVORS 417
CARDIORESPIRATORY FITNESS AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION 418
ON COGNITIVE FUNCTION AND BRAIN HEALTH 420
FUTURE DIRECTIONS 422
CLINICAL RECOMMENDATIONS 423
References 424
20 - Physical Activity and Cognition in Older Adults with Heart Failure 432
INTRODUCTION 432
REDUCED PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AS A MODIFIABLE RISK FACTOR FOR COGNITIVE DYSFUNCTION IN HF 433
The Capacity for Physical Activity is Reduced in HF 433
The Benefits of Physical Activity in HF 433
Exercise Interventions in HF 434
Self-Reported Levels of Physical Activity in HF 435
Impact of Physical Activity on Comorbid Conditions of HF 435
Adherence to Physical Activity Recommendations 435
Summary of the Benefits of Physical Activity in HF 436
BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON NEUROCOGNITIVE OUTCOMES IN NON-HF POPULATIONS 436
Exercise Interventions in Healthy Older Adults 436
Exercise Interventions in Older Adults with Cardiovascular Disease 436
Self-Reported Levels of Physical Activity and Cognition in Older Adults 437
BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON BRAIN HEALTH 438
Objective Measures of Fitness and Brain Health 438
Self-Reported Levels of Physical Activity and Brain Health in Older Adults 438
Exercise Interventions in Older Adults 439
Summary of the Beneficial Impact of Physical Activity on Neurocognitive Outcomes 439
BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON COGNITIVE OUTCOMES IN HF POPULATIONS 439
SUMMARY AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS 440
Future Directions 441
References 442
21 - The Effect of Regular Exercise on Cognition in Special Populations of Children: Overweight and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 446
INTRODUCTION 446
Executive Function 448
Exercise Training Improves Executive Function in Typically Developing Children 450
EXERCISE TRAINING AND COGNITION IN OVERWEIGHT AND OBESE CHILDREN 451
Observational Studies of Fitness, Fatness, and Children’s Neurocognitive Function 451
Randomized Controlled Trials of Exercise Training in Children Who are Overweight or Obese 452
EXERCISE TRAINING AND COGNITION IN CHILDREN WITH ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER 456
ADHD is Characterized by Deficits in Executive Function 456
Neurobiological Underpinnings of ADHD 456
Exercise–Cognition Potential in Children with ADHD 458
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS 461
References 463
22 - Exercise–Cognition Interaction: State of the Art and Future Research 470
INTRODUCTION 470
ACUTE EXERCISE 470
Research Findings 470
Support for Neuroscientific Explanations of the Acute Exercise–Cognition Interaction 471
Neurochemical Explanations 471
Reticular Activation Hypofrontality Theory 472
Psychophysiological Explanations 473
Research Design Issues 474
Measuring Exercise Intensity 474
Cognitive Task Issues 474
Neuroscience Measures 475
Sample Size and Statistical Power 477
Future Research 477
CHRONIC EXERCISE 478
Research Findings 478
Age 478
Special Populations 478
Support for Neuroscientific Explanations of the Chronic Exercise–Cognition Interaction 479
Neurochemical Explanations 479
Psychophysiological Explanations 480
Research Design Issues and Future Research 481
Atheoretical Nature of Much of the Research 482
TRANSLATIONAL ISSUES 482
Exercise as an Aid to Healthy Aging 482
Exercise as a Preventive Medicine 482
Exercise as an Aid to Children’s Learning 483
Effects on Occupations Involving Heavy Exercise 484
Exercise as an Aid to Performance of Workers in Sedentary Occupations 484
Warm-Up for Sports Performers 485
CONCLUSION 485
References 486
Index 494
A 494
B 495
C 496
D 499
E 499
F 501
G 501
H 502
I 502
L 502
M 503
N 503
O 504
P 504
Q 505
R 505
S 506
T 506
U 507
V 507
W 507
Y 507