Front Cover 1
Handbook of the Psychology of Aging 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 6
Foreword 12
Preface 14
About the Editors 20
List of Contributors 22
I. Concepts, Theory, Methods 26
1 Theoretical Perspectives for the Psychology of Aging in a Lifespan Context 28
Introduction 28
The Role of Pathology in Normal Aging 29
Assumption of Universal Decline 29
Successful, Normal and Pathological Aging 30
Lifespan Theories of Psychological Aging 31
Erikson’s Stage Model 31
Schaie and Willis’ Stage Theory of Cognition 32
The Co-Constructive Perspective 34
Summary and Outlook 35
References 35
2 Methodological Considerations for the Study of Adult Development and Aging 40
Introduction 41
Research Designs and Sampling Considerations for the Study of Adult Development and Aging 41
Cross-Sectional Versus Longitudinal Designs 41
Age Differences Versus Change 42
Relative Advantages Versus Disadvantages 42
Which Design Is Best Suited for the Study of Aging? 42
Summary 44
Longitudinal Designs: Select Subtypes 44
Intensive Measurement Burst Design 45
Key Threats to the Validity of Longitudinal Designs 46
Attrition 46
Retest Effects 46
Assessing the Impact of Repeated Practice on Trajectories of Age-Related Change 47
Missingness: Causes, Consequences, and Potential Solutions 48
Classifications of Missingness 48
Approaches for Dealing with Missing Data: A Brief Overview 49
Planned Missingness 51
Section Summary: Key Methodological Considerations for Incomplete Data 51
Modeling Change in Studies of Aging 52
Select Statistical Models for Change 52
Multilevel and Latent Growth Curve Approaches for Continuous Outcomes 52
Generalized Linear Mixed and Survival Models for Categorical Outcomes 53
Correlated and Coupled Change 54
Developmental Parameterizations of Time 54
Is Chronological Age the Only Metric? 55
Alternative Parameterizations of Time 55
Emerging Methodological Trends for the Study of Aging 57
Select Approaches to Integrated Data Analysis 57
Meta-Analysis 57
Mega-Analysis 57
Data Harmonization 58
Coordinated Analysis with Replication 58
An Intraindividual Variability Approach 59
Beyond the First Order Moment 59
RT Inconsistency Across Response Latency Trials 59
Conclusions 61
Acknowledgments 61
References 61
3 Society and the Individual at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century 66
Introduction 67
A Comment on Lifespan Psychology 68
Health and Health Care 69
Policies and Practices 71
Education 73
Policies and Practices 74
Work and Retirement 75
Policies and Practices 77
Family Life 78
Policies and Practices 81
Summary and Conclusions 83
References 83
II. Bio-psychosocial Factors in Aging 88
4 Sex Hormones and Cognitive Aging 90
Introduction 91
Effects of Estrogen and Testosterone in Young Adults 91
Variation in Cognition across the Menstrual Cycle 91
Menstrual Cycle Fluctuations in Neural Activity 92
Variation in Affect across the Menstrual Cycle 93
Effects of Menopause and Hormone Levels on Cognition in Older Women 93
Estrogens and Menopausal HT in Women—Observational Studies 94
Estrogens and Menopausal HT in Women—Effects of Surgical Menopause and Intervention in Younger and Older Women 95
Estrogens and Menopausal HT in Women—Intervention Studies in Older Postmenopausal Women 96
Results from the Women’s Health Initiative Memory Study (WHIMS) and the Women’s Health Initiative Study of Cognitive Aging ... 97
Testosterone and Progesterone 99
Estrogens and Menopausal HT in Older Women—Associations with Brain Structure and Function 100
Testosterone and Cognitive Aging in Men 102
Observational Studies of Circulating Levels of Testosterone and Cognitive Function 102
Intervention Studies of Testosterone Supplementation 102
Conclusions and Areas for Future Research 104
References 105
5 The Aging Mind in Transition: Amyloid Deposition and Progression toward Alzheimer’s Disease 112
Introduction 113
Amyloid Imaging 114
Models of Cognitive Transitions 115
Scaffolding Theory of Aging and Cognition 115
A Model of Preclinical AD 117
What is the Relationship between Amyloid Deposition and Neurodegeneration? 118
Neuronal Dysfunction 118
Neuronal Loss 119
Does Amyloid Deposition Invariably Lead to Cognitive Decline? 120
Amyloid and Episodic Memory 120
Impact of Amyloid on Other Cognitive Domains 120
Amyloid, Neurodegeneration, and Cognitive Decline 121
Modifiers of Transition to AD: Enrichment and Depletion Factors 121
Depletion Factors 122
Enrichment Factors 123
Conclusion and New Directions 123
Acknowledgment 124
References 124
6 Research on Human Plasticity in Adulthood: A Lifespan Agenda 130
Plasticity and Stability in Lifespan Development 131
The Supply–Demand Mismatch Model of Plasticity 131
Proposition #1: Plasticity Decreases from Childhood to Old Age 133
Proposition #2: Flexibility Increases from Childhood to Middle Adulthood, and Declines Thereafter 137
Proposition #3: Relative to Childhood, Plasticity in Adulthood and Old Age is More Often Associated with Maintenance, and L ... 138
Plasticity and Flexibility in Relation to Gf–Gc Theory 140
Open Questions and Future Research Directions 141
Investigating Age Differences in the Sequential Progression of Plasticity 141
Scrutinizing “Ribot’s Law” and the “Dark Side of Plasticity” 142
Towards a Molecular Understanding of Plasticity Dynamics in Human Adults 143
Acknowledgments 144
References 144
7 Cognitive and Physical Aging: Genetic Influences and Gene–Environment Interplay 150
Introduction 150
Cognitive Function 151
General Cognitive Ability 151
Specific Cognitive Abilities 152
Environmental Influences 152
Physical Function 153
Physiological Functioning 153
Behavioral Physical Functioning 154
Cross-Domain Investigations 155
Interrelationships Between Cognitive and Physical Aging 155
Brain Structures 156
Specific Genes Important to Cognitive and Physical Aging 156
Cognitive Aging 157
Physical Aging 158
Gene Pathways Underlying Cognition-Physical Functioning Dynamics 159
Genetic Influences on Environmental Sensitivity 160
Biomarkers of GE Interplay 161
Telomere Length 162
Summary and Future Directions 163
References 164
8 Memory: Behavior and Neural Basis 172
What Is Memory, and What Is Aging? 172
Brain Aging and Memory: A Complex and Dynamic Relationship 173
Control and Association: Major Influences on Age Differences in Memory 174
The Controlled Processing Paradox: Important and Impaired 174
Associational Memory May Be Especially Impaired in Aging 177
Default Network Dysregulation 178
Modifying Factors: Qualitative and Quantitative Effects 179
Interventions: Hope for Improvement? 180
Summary and Conclusions 183
References 184
9 Audition and Language Comprehension in Adult Aging: Stability in the Face of Change 190
Introduction 191
Challenges for Speech Comprehension 191
Age-Related Hearing Loss 192
Audition: Some Preliminaries 192
Types of Hearing Loss 193
Conductive Hearing Loss 193
Sensorineural Hearing Loss 193
Central Processing Deficits 194
Variability in Age-Related Hearing Loss 194
Speech in Noise: A Hallmark of Aging Hearing 195
Separating Speech from Noise 195
Informational Masking 195
Compensation Through Linguistic Knowledge 196
Effects of Age and Hearing Acuity on Word Recognition 196
Effects of Contextual Facilitation 197
Expectation and Entropy in Word Recognition 198
Comprehension and Recall at the Sentence Level 200
Compensatory Support from Speech Prosody 204
Support from Other Sensory Cues 204
Downstream Effects of Perceptual Effort 204
Broader Issues of Age-Related Hearing Loss 205
Conclusions 206
References 207
10 Exercise, Cognition, and Health 212
Introduction 212
Definitions 213
Epidemiological Studies 214
Physical Activity and Fitness Associations with Cognition 215
Randomized Trials of Aerobic Exercise on Cognition 215
Resistance Training on Cognition 216
Effects of Exercise on Impaired Populations 217
Cross-Sectional Associations Between Physical Activity and Gray Matter Volume 217
Randomized Trials of Exercise on Gray Matter Volume 218
Associations Between Physical Activity, Fitness, and White Matter Integrity 218
Aerobic Exercise Effects on Functional MRI Patterns 219
Effects of Resistance Training on Cerebral Blood Flow and fMRI Patterns 219
Mediators and Moderators 220
Other Health Factors Related to Cognition 221
Conclusion 221
References 222
III. Behavioral Processes 228
11 Personality and Health: Reviewing Recent Research and Setting a Directive for the Future 230
Personality Traits: Definitions and Classifications 231
Dispositions and Health: A Brief History of Models in the Field 232
Personality Traits and Physiological Markers of Aging 233
Inflammatory Markers and Personality Traits 233
Cardiovascular Indicators and Personality Traits 234
Personality and Health across Adulthood: Moderators, Moderated Mediators, and More 235
Age as a Moderator of Personality Traits and Health 235
Age as a Moderator of the Linkages Between Personality Traits and Health 236
The Full Role of Age on the Linkages Between Personality and Health 237
Healthy Living as a Catalyst for Personality Development 237
Subjective Wellbeing and Adult Personality Change 238
Healthy Behaviors as Predictors of Personality Change 238
Major Illness as a Predictor of Personality Change 238
Current and Future Directions 239
References 241
12 Cognitive Training in Later Adulthood 244
Introduction 245
Theoretical Perspectives and Assumptions on Training 245
Magnification Perspective 245
Compensatory Perspective 246
Cognitive Training: Behavioral Interventions and Behavioral Outcomes 246
Strategy Training 246
Episodic Memory 246
Inductive Reasoning 248
Component-Specific and Variable Priority Training 249
Variable Priority Training: Attention 250
Speed of Processing 250
Whole Task Practice Training 251
N-Back (Working Memory) Training 252
WM as a Multidimensional Construct: Implications for Training 252
Training Involving Multiple WM Subprocesses or Tasks 253
Multi-Domain Training 253
Multi-Domain: Combined Strategy and Component Training 253
MEMO 253
Activity Engagement Interventions 254
Computer- and Mobile-Based Training and Gaming 254
Computerized Training 254
Computerized-Cognitive Training 254
Casual Gaming Interventions 255
Association of Cognitive Abilities and Casual Video Games 255
Challenge of Classifying Games by Cognitive Domain 255
Association Between Cognitive Abilities and Game Groups 256
MCI Training 256
Cognitive Training: Neural Mechanisms and Outcomes 258
Brain Imaging as a Surrogate Biomarker 258
Brain Imaging to Identify Structural Plasticity 259
Effects on Training for Brain Activation 259
Models of Training-Induced Brain Changes 260
Neuroimaging as a Predictor of Training Response 262
References 264
13 Executive Functions and Neurocognitive Aging 270
Overview 270
Measuring EFs 271
Executive Deficit Theories of Cognitive Aging 272
Inhibitory Deficit Theory (Hasher & Zacks)
Goal Maintenance Deficit (Braver & West)
Production Deficit Hypothesis 273
Frontal Lobe Hypothesis of Cognitive Aging 273
A Current Perspective on Executive Deficit Theories of Cognitive Aging 274
Do EFs Show the Earliest and Disproportionate Decline? 274
Cross-Sectional Evidence for Disproportionate EF Decline? 275
Longitudinal Evidence for Earlier EF Decline? 275
Do Brain Regions Linked to EF Show the Earliest and Disproportionate Decline? 276
Aging and the Neural Substrates of EF 276
Relative Degree and Onset of PFC Decline 277
EFs and PFC Processes as Compensatory and Protective 279
EFs, the Frontal Lobes, and Lifelong aging 281
References 282
14 Social Interrelations in Aging: The Sample Case of Married Couples 288
Introduction 288
Overview of Existing Research and New Trends 289
Well-Being 290
Health 292
Cognition 293
Towards Addressing Methodological Challenges 294
Psychological Processes are Embedded in Macro-Level Contexts 295
Future Directions and Challenges 296
Capturing Processes that Occur on Different Timescales 296
Integrating Between-Couple and Within-Couple Perspectives 297
Applied Significance 298
Social Interrelations Beyond Marital Dyads 299
Conclusion 299
Acknowledgments 299
References 299
15 Age Differences in the Connection of Mood and Cognition: Evidence from Studies of Mood Congruent Effects 304
Introduction 305
Definition and Theories of Mood-congruent Cognition 305
Emotion Theory and Mood Congruence in Young Adulthood: Associationist and Schema Models 305
Emotion Theory and Aging: The Positivity Effect and Its Limits: SST and SAVI 307
Conceptual and Methodological Issues in the Study of Mood-congruent Cognition 307
Effects of Personality Factors on Emotion and Cognition Interaction 309
Mood-congruent Effects on Cognition: Adulthood 310
Mood-congruence Effects in Depression: Memory and Attentional Bias 310
Mood Congruence Effects in Anxiety: Memory and Attentional Biases 312
Mood-congruent Effects on Cognition: Older Adult Populations 314
Depressed Mood and Congruent Cognition in Older Adults 314
Mood-congruent Attention in Sad and Depressed Mood 317
Anxious Mood and Congruent Cognition in Older Adults 318
Implications for Theory and Research on Age Differences in the Mood–Cognition Linkage 320
Implications for Psychological Interventions with Older Adults 321
References 323
16 Psychological Vitality in the Oldest Old 328
Introduction 328
Scope of the Chapter 329
Who are the Contemporary Oldest Old? 329
Research Issues 330
Domains of Psychological Vitality 331
Cognition 331
Level Versus Change in Cognition and Survival 331
Heterogeneity of Cognitive Functioning in the Oldest Old 332
Personality Traits 333
Trait Predictors of Survival 333
Personality Profiles of the Oldest Old 334
Personality Change after Age 80 334
Self-Related Beliefs and Self-Regulation 335
Self-Related Predictors of Survival 335
Characteristics of the Self-Related Beliefs of the Oldest-Old 336
Change in Self-Related Beliefs after Age 80 336
Social Connections 337
Social Connections of the Oldest Old 338
Social Connection Predictors of Survival 338
Subjective Well-Being 339
Subjective Well-Being and the Prediction of Survival to Age 80 339
Level and Change in Subjective Well-Being after Age 80 340
Conclusions 340
References 341
IV. Complex Processes 346
17 Cross-Cultural Psychology of Aging 348
Cross-Cultural Psychology of Aging 348
A Theory: Aging in Culture 349
Individuals Make Sense of Life Through Internalizing the Values of Their Cultures 349
Age Differences in Personality 351
Age Differences in Social Relationships 353
Age-Related Cognition 354
Other Approaches 356
Using Aging as a Context to Test Cultural Differences 356
Cross-Cultural Aging as Tests of Generalizability 357
Summary, Caveats, and Conclusion 358
Acknowledgments 359
References 359
18 Work, Retirement and Aging 364
Aging in the Work Context 365
Work and Cognitive Aging 365
EOR for Aging Workers 366
Aging in the Context of HRM 368
Employee Benefits 368
Knowledge Transfer Strategy 369
Motivation and Performance Management 370
Retention and Recruitment 371
Aging and Work–Family Issues 372
The Transition from Work to Retirement: The Temporal Process and Outcomes 374
The Temporal Process Model of Retirement 374
Outcomes of Retirement 377
Conclusions and Future Directions 379
References 381
19 Financial Decision-Making and Capacity in Older Adults 386
Introduction: What is Financial Capacity? Legal, Clinical and Ethical Perspectives 387
The Financial Capacity Problem: Cognitive Aging and Disorders of Aging 389
Clinical Warning Signs of Diminished Financial Capacity 390
Challenges in Modeling Financial Capacity 391
Clinical Model of Financial Capacity 392
Approaches to Assessing Financial Capacity 393
Assessing Premorbid Financial Capacity 393
Self and Informant-Based Assessment 395
Performance-Based Assessment 395
Clinical Interview Assessment of Financial Capacity 397
Empirical Studies of Financial Capacity 397
Financial Capacity in Patients with Mild and Moderate AD 397
Longitudinal Change in Financial Capacity in Patients with Mild AD 398
Financial Capacity in Patients with MCI 399
Neuropsychological Predictors of Financial Capacity 400
Neuroimaging Studies of Financial Capacity 402
Neuroimaging Approaches to Studying Financial Capacity 402
Neuroimaging Studies of Financial Capacity in aMCI and AD 402
Neuroimaging Studies of Financial Decision Making in Cognitively Normal Older Adults 403
Summary 403
Non-Cognitive Contributions to Financial Capacity in Aging 404
Psychological and Psychiatric Contributions to Financial Capacity 404
Relationship of Physical Dependence/Medical Frailty to Financial Capacity in Aging 405
Cultural and Social Contributions to Financial Capacity in Aging 406
Resilience and Financial Capacity in Aging 407
Future Research Directions 408
Detecting Very Early Financial Declines in Cognitively Normal Elderly 408
Study of Financial Capacity in Other Older Adult Clinical Populations 408
Study of Non-Cognitive Contributions to Financial Capacity in Aging 409
Evolution of Financial Capacity in a Technological Society 409
References 409
20 Technology, Gaming, and Social Networking 414
Definition of Technology and ICT 415
A Century of Development and Diffusion of Technology 415
Home Computing and Gaming 416
Technology Use and Age 416
Theories and Models of Technology Adoption 418
Rogers Diffusion of Innovation (Rogers, 1995) 418
Technology Acceptance Model 419
Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology 419
Other Factors in Technology Acceptance and Use 419
Older Adult Game Use and Game Preferences 420
Gamer Demographics 420
Game Preferences of Older Adults 421
Benefits of Gaming 421
Communication 422
Social Networking as a Newly Emerging Communications Technology 423
Benefits of SNS Use? 423
Barriers to Technology Adoption by Seniors 424
Financial Cost 424
Cognitive Cost 424
Beliefs 426
Design Costs 426
Privacy Concerns 426
Technology as a Factor for Successful Longevity 427
Conclusions 428
Acknowledgment 429
References 429
21 Risk Factors and Prevention Strategies for Late-Life Mood and Anxiety Disorders 434
Introduction 435
Late-Life Depression 435
Epidemiology of Late-Life Depression 435
Sociodemographic Risk Factors for Depression 436
Sex 436
Race 436
Biological and Clinical Risk Factors for Depression 437
The Inter-relationship Between Cardiovascular Disease, Dementia, and Depression 437
Disability 438
Psychosocial Risk Factors for Depression 439
Social Support 439
Bereavement 440
Late-Life Anxiety Disorders 441
Epidemiology of Late-Life Anxiety Disorders 441
Risk Factors for Late-Life Anxiety Disorders 441
Late-Life Co-Existing Mood and Anxiety Disorders 442
Epidemiology of Late-Life Co-existing Mood–Anxiety Disorders 442
Characteristics of Co-existing Mood–Anxiety Disorders 442
Risk Factors for Late-Life Suicide and Suicidal Behavior 442
Detection, Treatment, and Management 444
Conclusion 445
References 446
22 Late-Life Sleep and Sleep Disorders 454
Late-Life Sleep and Sleep Disorders Normal Late-Life Sleep 455
Epidemiology of Sleep Disorders in Late Life 455
Insomnia 455
Advanced Sleep Phase Disorder 456
Sleep-Disordered Breathing 456
Assessment 457
Main Methods of Sleep Assessment 457
Subjective Assessments 457
Objective Assessments 457
Sleep Disorders 458
Insomnia 458
Development 458
Major Theories 458
Risk Factors for Late-Life Insomnia 459
Comorbidities 459
Social and Behavioral Changes 459
Cognition 459
Socioeconomic Status 459
Hypnotic Dependence 459
Special Populations 460
Assessment 460
Interventions 460
Pharmacological 460
Psychological 461
Psychological and Pharmacological Approaches Combined 461
CBT-I and Hypnotic Reduction 461
Advanced Sleep Phase Disorder 462
Development 462
Major Theories 462
Assessment 463
Interventions 463
Sleep-Disordered Breathing 464
Development 464
Type—OSA Versus Central Sleep Apnea 464
Risk Factors 464
Assessment 464
Intervention 464
Expectancies Regarding Interventions and Outcomes in Older Adults 465
Evidence-Based Treatments 465
Does CBT-I Work for Older Adults? 465
Treatment for Comorbid Insomnia in Older Adults? 465
Treatment of Comorbid Apnea and Insomnia? 466
Caregiver Involvement and Treatment 466
Dementia Patients and Caregivers 466
Conclusions and Future Directions 467
References 468
23 Psychosocial Interventions for Older Adults with Dementia and Their Caregivers 472
Introduction 473
Person-Centered Interventions 474
Rationale and Theory 474
Studies 474
PA Interventions 474
Rationale and Theory 474
Studies 488
Caregiver Training Interventions 488
Rationale and Theory 488
Studies 488
Emotion-Focused Interventions 489
Rationale and Theory 489
Studies 489
Social Enhancement 489
Rationale and Theory 489
Studies 489
Translation and Implementation of Psychosocial Approaches 489
Discussion 491
References 493
24 The Psychology of Death and Dying in Later Life 500
Introduction 500
Part 1: Secular, Technological Influences on Understanding and Experiencing Death and Dying in Later Life 501
Part 2: Individual Expectations and Fears about Dying, Including Empirical, Data, Clinical Practices, and Proposed Policy C ... 502
Physical Symptoms 506
Psychological Symptoms 506
Economic Demands and Caregiver Needs 507
Social Relationships and Support 507
Spiritual/Existential Beliefs 507
Hopes and Expectations 507
Part 3: Bereavement, Grief, and Mourning in Contemporary Society 508
Some Introductory Material 508
Conclusion 512
References 512
Author Index 516
Subject Index 540