Primate Locomotion (eBook)

Foreword 6
Contents 12
Contributors 14
Chapter 1: Introduction. Primate Locomotion: Toward a Synergy of Laboratory and Field Research 18
References 22
Chapter 2: Translating Primate Locomotor Biomechanical Variables from the Laboratory to the Field 24
Introduction 25
Variables That Can Be Collected Under Field and Laboratory Conditions 27
Gait Choice 27
Footfall Sequence and Limb Timing 27
Limb Protraction and Retraction 29
Contact Time 29
Elbow Yield 29
Performance Measures Examined 31
Stability 31
Peak Ground Forces 31
Metabolic Costs 31
The Connection Between Biomechanical Variables and Performance Measures 34
Gait Choice, Stability, and Energy Efficiency 34
Limb Protraction, Contact Time, and Elbow Yield 37
Stride Frequency and Locomotor Cost 39
Conclusion 39
References 40
Chapter 3: Studying Captive Ape Locomotion: Past, Present, and Future 45
Introduction 46
Research Ex Situ: Accomplishments 47
High-Tech Experimental Setups 47
Locomotion in Bonobos 48
Locomotion in Gibbons 50
Research Ex Situ: Current Issues and How to Deal with Them 51
Substrate Complexity 51
Gait Variability 54
Need for Field Studies 55
Locomotor Behavior in Captivity: Representative of the Wild? 55
Which Gaits Should Be Studied Ex Situ? 56
Substrate Use and Substrate Properties in the Wild 57
Energetics: Importance of Efficiency? 58
Conclusions 58
References 58
Chapter 4: Experimental and Computational Studies of Bipedal Locomotion in the Bipedally Trained Japanese Macaque 63
Introduction 64
Kinematics of Bipedal Locomotion in Trained and Ordinary Japanese Macaques 65
Ground Reaction Force Profiles of Bipedal Locomotion in Trained and Ordinary Japanese Macaques 67
Musculoskeletal Model of Japanese Macaques 69
Musculoskeletal Motion During Bipedal Locomotion in Trained Japanese Macaques 71
Computer Simulation of Locomotion 73
Conclusion 74
Acknowledgments 74
References 74
Chapter 5: In What Manner Do Quadrupedal Primates Walk on Two Legs? Preliminary Results on Olive Baboons (Papio anubis) 76
Introduction 77
Materials and Methods 78
Subjects 78
Protocols and Study Site 78
The Motion Capture Protocol 79
Motion Analysis 79
Results 81
General Features of the Bipedal Locomotor Mode 81
Type of Foot Contact to the Ground 84
Vertical Excursion of Joint Centers 84
Spatiotemporal Parameters 84
Joint Angles 87
Discussion and Perspectives 91
Acknowledgments 94
References 94
Chapter 6: Scapula Movements and Their Contribution to Three-Dimensional Forelimb Excursions in Quadrupedal Primates 98
Introduction 99
Materials and Methods 101
Subjects 101
Motion Analysis 101
Morphometry 102
Results and Discussion 104
Scapular Motion in Cranio-caudal Direction and Its Importance for Limb Pro- and Retraction 104
Scapular Motion and Its Importance for Three-Dimensional Forelimb Excursions 108
Different Patterns of Shoulder Motion and Their Evolutionary Aspects 109
Morphological Correlates of Scapular Mobility 112
Conclusion 118
Acknowledgments 120
References 120
Chapter 7: The Influence of Load Carrying on Gait Parameters in Humans and Apes: Implications for the Evolution of Human Bipedalism 124
Introduction 125
Human Carrying Observations 127
Human Gait Parameters 127
Ape Gait Parameters 128
Methods 128
Human Carrying Observations 128
Human Gait Parameters 129
Ape Gait Parameters 130
Data Normalization 132
Results 133
Human Carrying Observations 133
Human Gait Parameters 133
Ape Gait Parameters 136
Bonobos 136
Gorillas 136
Chimpanzees 138
Orang-utans 138
Footfall Sequences 141
Bonobos 142
Gorillas 142
Chimpanzees 142
Orang-utans 145
Discussion 145
Human Observations 145
Human Gait Parameters 146
Ape Gait Parameters 146
Conclusion 147
Acknowledgments 147
References 147
Chapter 8: Field and Experimental Approaches to the Study of Locomotor Ontogeny in Propithecus verreauxi 150
Introduction 151
Methods 154
Results and Discussion 157
Phenotype 157
Function 159
Performance 161
Fitness 162
Conclusions 166
Acknowledgments 167
References 167
Chapter 9: Comparisons of Limb Structural Properties in Free-ranging Chimpanzees from Kibale, Gombe, Mahale, and Taï Communities 170
Introduction 171
Materials and Methods 175
Results 178
Kibale Chimpanzees versus Other Community Chimpanzees 178
Sex-Specific Comparisons of Kibale Chimpanzees with Chimpanzees in Other Communities 181
Ranks of Community Structural Properties versus Habitat Differences 190
Discussion 191
Acknowledgments 193
References 194
Chapter 10: Field Study Methods for Primate Locomotor Ecology and Biomechanics 198
Introduction 199
Observational Field Methods 202
Categories 1–3: Date, Species, and Time 203
Category 4: Locomotor and Postural Mode 203
Categories 5–8: Support Diameter and Orientation 203
Interactions Between Locomotion and Substrate: The Case of Leaping Prosimians 204
Categories 9 and 10: Initial and Terminal Height 207
Category 11: “Horizontal” Distance Traveled 207
Category 12: Activity 209
Category 13: Continues from Previous? 209
Support Availability 210
Ranging 210
Field Techniques for Estimation of Mechanical Energy Costs of Locomotion and Estimates of Metabolic Energy Budgets 211
Diet and Metabolism 211
Measurement of Metabolic Rates 212
Conclusion 212
Acknowledgments 213
References 213
Chapter 11: Gibbon Locomotion Research in the Field: Problems, Possibilities, and Benefits for Conservation 215
Introduction 215
The Focus of Current Field Studies 217
Introducing the Gibbons: The True Brachiators 217
Evolutionary Advantages of Brachiation 219
Perceptual Motor Skills 220
Why Study Gibbon Locomotion in the Field? 220
Methods: Problems and Solutions for Field-Based Locomotor Studies 222
Video Cameras 222
Measuring Forces and Pressure 223
Behavioral Data 224
Recent Findings from the Field 224
Conservation Implications 225
Acknowledgments 225
References 225
Chapter 12: Posture, Ischial Tuberosities, and Tree Zone Use in West African Cercopithecids 228
Introduction 229
Methods 233
Results 236
Discussion 248
Conclusions 254
Acknowledgments 255
References 255
Chapter 13: Forelimb Suspensory Gait Characteristics of Wild Lagothrix poeppigii and Ateles belzebuth: Developing Video-based Methodologies in Free-ranging Primates 259
Introduction 260
Study Objectives 263
Methods 264
Study Site and Subjects 264
Data Collection 265
Evaluating Suspensory Locomotion 266
General Arm Raising Ability 266
Relative Degree of Elbow-Flexion During Forelimb Swings, Steps, and Strides 267
Tail Use During Suspension 267
Gait Symmetry and Hand and Tail Touchdown/Lift-off Patterns 267
Initiation and Termination of Forelimb Swings, Steps, and Strides 268
Forelimb Suspensory Temporal Gait Parameters 268
Statistical Analysis 269
Results 269
Reaching Overhead During Ateline Positional Behavior 269
Descriptive Characteristics of Forelimb Suspension in Lagothrix poeppigii and Ateles belzebuth 271
Temporal-gait Characteristics of Forelimb Suspension in Lagothrix poeppigii and Ateles belzebuth 273
Discussion 274
Conclusion 277
Acknowledgments 278
References 278
Chapter 14: Gait and Kinematics of Arboreal Quadrupedal Walking of Free-ranging Red Howlers (Alouatta seniculus) in French Guiana 282
Introduction 283
Study Site, Subjects, and Methods 284
Results 286
Discussion 290
Acknowledgments 295
References 295
Chapter 15: From Treadmill to Tropics: Calculating Ranging Cost in Chimpanzees 299
Introduction 300
Laboratory Studies of Energy Expenditure 303
Walking, Trotting, and Galloping 303
Allometric Studies 303
Determinants of COL and COT 304
Climbing and Leaping 307
Daily Energy Expenditure (DEE) 309
Case Study: Kanyawara Chimpanzees 310
Daily Walking Cost 310
Daily Climbing Cost 312
Daily Energy Expenditure 312
Results and Discussion 313
Daily Ranging Costs and DEE for Kanyawara Chimpanzees 313
Estimating Ranging Costs for Wild Primates 314
Integrating Laboratory and Field Investigation of Primate Ranging Cost 316
References 317
Chapter 16: Linking Field and Laboratory Approaches for Studying Primate Locomotor Responses to Support Orientation 320
Introduction 321
The Problem of Branch Inclination: Limb Kinematics on Oblique Supports 321
Incline Predictions 323
Decline Predictions 323
Locomotor Kinematics in Eulemur: A Case Study for Naturalistic Experimental Research 324
Methods 324
Focal Subjects 324
Measuring Locomotor Kinematics in the Laboratory and in the Field 325
Results 327
Discussion 334
Exploring Kinematic Patterns in Experimental and Natural Conditions 335
The Role of Kinematic Approaches in the Wild 337
Challenges and Solutions for Integrating In Situ and Ex Situ Data 337
Future Directions for Linking Laboratory and Field Techniques 338
Conclusions 339
Acknowledgments 339
References 339
Chapter 17: Quadrupedal Locomotion of Saimiri boliviensis: A Comparison of Field and Laboratory-based Kinematic Data 343
Introduction 344
Materials and Methods 346
Laboratory Data 346
Field Data 347
Kinematic Variables 347
Substrate Variables 349
Statistical Analyses 350
Results 350
Comparison of laboratory- and field-based data on quadrupedal locomotion in Saimiri boliviensis 350
Limb Phase 350
Speed and Duty Factor 352
Effects of Natural Substrate Variation on Quadrupedal Locomotion in Saimiri boliviensis 352
Substrate Orientation 352
Relative Substrate Size 353
Summary of Results 354
Discussion 355
Summary and Conclusions 360
Acknowledgments 361
References 361
Index 365