Emotions as Bio-cultural Processes (eBook)

PD Dr. phil. Birgitt Röttger-Rössler teaches Social Anthropology at the University of Göttingen. She studied social and physical anthropology as well as Malay languages and literatures at the Universities of Goettingen, Zurich, Cologne and Bonn. Her main research focuses on the cultural patterning of emotions as well as on gender relations, life history and autobiographical narrating; Indonesian and Malay literatures. She has accomplished several research projects concerning these topics and has conducted extensive ethnographic fieldwork in Indonesia, mainly in Sulawesi and Sumatra. Hans Joachim Markowitsch is Professor of Physiological Psychology at the University of Bielefeld. He studied psychology and biology at the University of Konstanz, had professorships for biopsychology and physiological psychology at the Universities of Konstanz, Bochum, and Bielefeld and was offered chairs of psychology and neuroscience at Australian and Canadian Universities. His research centers on the neural and psychic bases of memory disorders, consciousness, emotion, and free will. He is author, co-author or editor of more than a dozen books and has written more than 450 scientific articles and book chapters

Preface 6
Contents 8
Contributors 10
Prologue 12
Introduction 13
References 19
Homo Sapiens-The Emotional Animal 20
Notes 27
References 28
Part 1: Concepts and Approaches 29
Emotions as Bio-cultural Processes: Disciplinary Debates and an Interdisciplinary Outlook 30
Criteria for Basic Emotional Processes 32
Estimation, Evaluation, Appraisal 36
Course of an Emotional Episode 40
Internal Processing of an Emotional Episode 40
Body-Related Aspects of the Processing of an Emotional Episode 45
Relation Between Basic Emotions and Appraisal Processes 46
Complex Emotions/Nonbasic Emotional Events 47
Differential Criteria for Specific Emotions 50
Universal and Culture-Specific Emotions 51
Universal Emotions 51
Culture-Specific Emotions 51
Interdisciplinary Outlook 53
Notes 55
References 57
On the Origin and Evolution of Affective Capacities in Lower Vertebrates 61
Introduction: Emotions, Feelings, and Darwinean Theory 61
Basic Needs, Basic Dangers, Basic Emotions 63
Nociception, Conditioning, and the Evolution of Emotions 63
On Being Touchy and on Being in Pain 63
On Nociception and Pain 63
‘‘Once Bitten Twice Shy’’: From Fright to Fear 65
Invertebrates 68
Noxious Events, Reflexive Behaviour, Fright and Fear in Invertebrates 68
Emotions and the Evolving Brain 70
Possible Ancestry and the Phylogeny of the Vertebrates 70
Sensory Organs, Nociception, and Memory in the Lower Chordates 72
Lancelets, Lampreys (Cephalochordata and Cyclostomata), Sharks, and Rays (Elasmobranchii) 73
Evolution and the Brain in Vertebrates 74
Emotions, the Limbic System of Mammals and the Problem of Homology 76
Bony Fishes 79
Nociception and Fear Conditioning in the Teleosts 79
Amygdaloid Complex, Learning, and Emotional Memory of Fishes 81
Amphibians 83
Nociception 83
Learning, Emotional Memory, and Amygdala Complex of Amphibians 83
Reptiles 85
Nociception 85
Learning, Emotional Memory, and Amygdaloid Complex of Reptiles 85
Summary and Conclusion 87
Notes 89
References 91
Emotions: The Shared Heritage of Animals and Humans 100
Phylogenetic Brain Development in Mammals 100
Limbic System-Basis of Emotions in Mammalian Brain 105
Evolution of Functions-Intellectual Changes during Phylogeny and Their Anatomical Bases 107
References 111
Neurobiological Basis of Emotions 115
Emotions: Mediated by ‘‘Body and Brain’’ 115
Limbic System: The Neural Basis of Emotions 116
Amygdala 117
Amygdala-Septum Interactions 120
Diencephalon: Thalamus and Hypothalamus 120
Hippocampal Formation 122
Expanded Limbic System 122
Cingulate Cortex 123
Orbitofrontal Cortex 125
Insular Cortex 125
Striatum 126
Neurotransmitter Systems 126
Emotional Changes in Patients Suffering from Brain Damage 126
Amygdala 127
Septal Nuclei 129
Orbitofrontal Cortex 129
Other Regions 131
Laterality Effects: Right Hemisphere Hypothesis 132
Valence Hypothesis 133
References 134
Milestones and Mechanisms of Emotional Development 143
Definition of Emotion 144
Dimensions of Emotional Development 146
Quality of an Emotion 146
Regulative Function of Emotions 146
Form of an Emotion: Expressive Reactions as a Medium of Emotional Development 147
Relation of the Subfunction ‘‘Emotion’’ to Other Psychological Subfunctions in Action Regulation 149
Ontogenetic Phases of Emotional Development 150
Ontogenetic Starting Point: With What Are Neonates Equipped When They Enter Our World? 150
Emergence of Sign-Mediated Emotion Systems During Infancy 152
Developing Differentiated Emotions 153
Developmental Mechanism of Emotional Differentiation 153
Acquisition of a Repertoire of Actions 155
Emergence of Intrapersonal Regulation in Toddlers and Preschoolers 155
Development of Expression Signs From Age 6 Onward 160
Use of Expression to Display Emotions in Interpersonal Regulation 160
Internalization of Expression Signs In Intrapersonal Regulation 161
Summary and Outlook 162
Notes 163
References 163
Gravestones for Butterflies: Social Feeling Rules and Individual Experiences of Loss 168
Background 170
Narrations of Pregnancy Loss 171
Onset 172
Time Together 173
Experience of Giving ‘‘Death’’ 174
Time of Sorrow 175
Discussion 177
Conclusion 179
Notes 180
Appendix 181
References 183
Emotion by Design: Self-Management of Feelings as a Cultural Program 184
Emotions and Economic Action 185
Two Hypotheses in Sociological Research: Alienation Versus Informalization 187
Emotional Self-Management in ‘‘Flexible Capitalism’’ 189
Example of ‘‘Emotional Intelligence’’ 192
Program of Authentic Self-Programming 195
Paradoxes in the Modern Regulation of Emotion 196
Notes 198
References 198
Emotion, Embodiment, and Agency: The Place of a Social Emotions Perspective in the Cross-Disciplinary Understanding of Emotional Processes 202
Introduction 202
A Social Emotions Approach and its Implications 203
The Social Ontology of Emotion 203
The Body and Emotion 204
Emotion and Social Structure 205
Social Emotional Processes and Agency 206
Next Steps 207
The Quest of Philosophical Anthropology 207
The Active, Constitutive Role of the Body in Society and Culture 209
The Concept of Positionality and Its Implications in the Study of Emotion 211
Emotion as an Aspect of ‘‘Taking a Position’’ 212
Emotion, Action, and the Embodiment of Structure 212
Subjectivity, Action, Feeling, and Time 213
Conclusion 214
Notes 215
References 215
On the Nature of Artificial Feelings 217
Introduction 217
Notes 226
References 226
Part 2: Empirical Studies-Shame and Pride: Prototypical Emotions Between Biology and Culture 228
‘‘Honor and Dishonor’’: Connotations of a Socio-symbolic Category in Cross-Cultural Perspective 229
Introduction 229
Honor and Dishonor: In Search of a Category 230
In Search of a Typology 232
Horizontal Versus Vertical Honour 234
Individual Versus Collective Honour 235
Code of Honor: Examples of Cultural and Regional Similarities and Differences 237
Mediterranean World 237
Spain 237
Italy 238
Greece 239
Balkans 240
Montenegro and Northern Albania 240
Arabic World 242
A aywamacrt and Awlamacrt Ali Bedouin of Egypt 242
Ghiyata of Eastern Morocco 243
Kabyle Society of Algeria 244
West and Central Asia 244
Turkey 244
Afghanistan (Pashtuns) 246
South Asia 247
Southeast Asia 249
East Asia 250
China 250
Japan 251
New Guinea 252
Northern Africa (Fulbe) 253
East Africa (Pokot) 254
‘‘Old American South’’ 255
It’s a Man’s World but What About Women? 256
Honor Lost- Honor Restored 260
Honor Lost 260
Honor Restored 261
‘‘Honor Crimes’’ and ‘‘Honor Killings’’ 262
Some Generalisations 266
Notes 270
References 271
‘‘Honor and Dishonor’’ and the Quest for Emotional Equivalents 281
Introduction 281
Honour, Dishonour, and the Emotions Pride and Shame 282
Pride and Shame as ‘‘Self-Conscious Emotions’’ 283
Pride 285
Shame 287
Embodiment of Pride and Shame and the Related Pan-Human Behavioural Code 287
Self-Evaluation, Self-Esteem, and the Reference Group 290
Pride, Shame, and the Pain of Being Excluded 291
Self-Esteem, Pride, Shame, and Well-Being 293
Rational Actor Theory, Well-Being, and Worrying 295
Emotions and the Multidimensionality of Well-Being 298
Is Honor to Pride What Dishonor is to Shame? 300
On the Origin of the Honor-Dishonor Code 301
Hierarchies, Dominance, and Feelings: Evolutionary Perspective 301
Human Cultural History and the Emergence of the Honor/Dishonor Code 303
Conclusion 306
Notes 307
References 308
End of Honor? Emotion, Gender, and Social Change in an Indonesian Society 317
Ethnographic Context 318
Case Study: Badiah’s Marriage 319
Dramatis Personae 319
Badiah’s Marriage 320
Interpretation 321
Discussion 325
Conclusion 327
Notes 328
References 328
‘‘Beggars’’ and ‘‘Kings’’: Emotional Regulation of Shame Among Street Youths in a Javanese City in Indonesia 329
Introduction 329
Regulation of Emotions 330
Social Emotions of Shame and Pride 333
Cultural Differences: Shame and Malu 335
Malu and Stigma 336
Transformation from Shame to Pride 338
Ethnic Pride 341
From ‘‘Beggars’’ to ‘‘Kings:’’ A Metamorphosis? 343
‘‘King’’ Encounters: Tekyan and Rendan 343
Encounters with Their Parents: ‘‘Beggars’’ Again? 344
Conclusion 345
Notes 345
References 346
The Search for Style and the Urge for Fame: Emotion Regulation and Hip-Hop Culture 350
Introduction 350
Socialization as an Active Process in a Changing Environment 351
Development of Emotions and Emotion Regulation During Adolescence 352
Attainment of Self-Esteem 353
Toward a Broad View of Emotion Regulation 354
Hip-Hop: Arena for Emotion Regulation Through Identity Construction 355
Invented in the Urban Jungle 355
Internal Structure of Hip-Hop 357
Sampling as a Tool for the Bricolage of an Identity 357
Hip-Hop Battle as a Source of Respect 358
Local Adaptations of a Global Phenomenon 359
Graffiti and Break-Dancing: Control of Space and Body 360
Summary: Rise of a Youth Culture as a Way of Creating a Space for Positive Emotion Experiences 361
Notes 362
References 365
Discography 350
Filmography 350
Shame and Pride: Invisible Emotions in Classroom Research 370
Introduction 370
Function of Shame and Pride in Conveying Cultural Norms 371
External Evaluation and Self-Evaluation as Triggers of Pride and Shame 372
Motivating Impact of Feeling Shame or Pride 373
Institutionally Determined Episodes of Pride and Shame in Daily School Life 374
Qualification and Allocation as Sources of Pride and Shame Experiences 374
School Socialization as Internalization of the Achievement Principle 377
The Class as a Source of Pride and Shame Experiences 378
Shame and Pride in the School Context: The State of Research 379
‘‘Invisibility’’ of Pride and Shame in Western Cultures 380
Test Anxiety as an Unrecognized Shame Anxiety 380
Consequences of Excessive Experiences of Shame 382
Impact of Shame and Pride on the Self-Concept, Self-Esteem, and Achievement Motivation 382
Personality Development, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem 383
Shame and Pride and Their Influence on the Development of Achievement Motivation 384
Self-Evaluation Model of Achievement Motivation 385
Setting Reference Norms and Their Affective and Motivational Consequences 386
Summary and Outlook 388
References 389
Anger, Shame, and Justice: Regulative and Evaluative Function of Emotions in the Ancient and Modern Worlds 394
Introduction 394
Notes 408
References 411
Index 413