Applied Systems Theory (eBook)

Dr Rob Dekkers (Adam Smith Business School, University of Glasgow) is an active researcher and educator in industrial management and engineering. He uses Applied Systems Theory not only to teach students at all levels, including research students, but also practitioners, professionals and managers in state-of-the-art courses. During his industrial and later academic experience he himself has benefited from system thinking at many occasions for solving industrial problems and consulting companies. Others that have applied the concepts of Applied Systems Theory articulate that they have found it easier to understand holistically challenges they face, to solve problems with more direction and to convince others better of results and solutions. The concepts of Applied Systems Theory are also applicable to research. Dr Rob Dekkers has used systems theories for developing interdisciplinary contributions and research in operations and service management, industrial engineering, organisational design, collaborative (industrial) networks, outsourcing, business process modelling and innovation and technology management. These research projects make use of systems theories, the related science of complexity and evolutionary approaches. This wealth of experience, industrial and academic, have been brought together in this book for managers, practitioners, students and researchers.

Synopsis 6
I Systems, Entities as Part of a Whole 6
Systems as Objects of Study 7
Behaviour of Systems 8
II System Approaches 10
Blackbox Approach 10
Aggregation Strata 11
III Processes 12
Static and Dynamic Systems 13
Processes: Change of State 13
Function 14
IV Control of Processes 14
Directing 15
Feedback 15
Feedforward 16
Completing Deficiencies 17
V Steady-State Model 17
Coding and Decoding 18
Quality Filters 18
Buffers and Overflow Valves 20
Initiation and Evaluation 21
Limitations of the Steady-State Model 21
VI Autopoiesis 22
Structurally Closed and Self-Referential 22
Allopoietic Systems 23
VII Complex Adaptive Systems 23
Simple Rules 24
Fitness Landscapes 24
VIII Breakthrough Model 24
IX Model for the Dynamic Adaptation Capability 26
Contents 28
Foreword to the Second Edition 34
1 Introduction 35
1.1 Concise History of Systems Theories 35
1.2 Application of Systems Theories 40
1.3 Foundations of Applied Systems Theory 41
1.4 Hard Systems Approach vs. Soft Systems Approach 43
1.5 Who Might Benefit from Applied Systems Theory and How? 44
1.6 Outline of Book 45
References 46
2 Basic Concepts of Systems Theories 49
2.1 Systems 50
Defining Systems 51
Elements 53
Relationships 55
Universe 55
Environment 56
2.2 Properties of Systems 56
Content 57
Structure 58
Attributes 59
Emergence 59
Wholeness and Independence 61
2.3 Subsystems 61
2.4 Aspectsystems 63
2.5 State of Systems 66
2.6 Behaviour of Systems 68
2.7 Systems Boundary 70
2.8 Summary 71
References 73
3 System Approaches 74
3.1 Modelling and Abstraction 75
Classification 78
Aggregation 80
Generalisation 83
3.2 Blackbox Approach 85
3.3 Deductive, Inductive and Abductive Reasoning 87
Deductive Reasoning 87
Equifinality, Homeostasis and Deductive Reasoning 88
Inductive Reasoning 91
Abductive Reasoning 94
3.4 Types of Models 96
Isomorphism 97
Homomorphism 97
Analogies and Metaphors 98
Qualitative Models 100
Quantitative Models 103
Overview of Models 106
3.5 Systems Hierarchy of Boulding 108
3.6 Summary 111
References 112
4 Generic Approaches to Problem Analysis and Solving 115
4.1 Types of Decision Making 116
Programmed Decisions 116
Non-Programmed Decisions 117
Decisions in Crises 119
4.2 Problem Analysis 120
Problem Definition 120
Analysing Problems 123
Redefining Problem Definition 126
4.3 Finding and Weighing Alternatives 126
Generating Alternatives and Principle Solutions 127
Weighing Alternatives 130
[Pugh’s] Controlled Convergence Method 131
4.4 Decision Making 132
Multiple-criteria Decision Making 132
Decision Trees 134
Satisficing 136
Case-Based Reasoning 136
Decision Making in Groups 137
Abilene Paradox 138
4.5 Implementation of Solutions 138
Detailing of Solution 138
Effectuation of Solution 139
4.6 Evaluation of Solutions 140
4.7 Overview of Process for Problem Solving and Decision Making 141
4.8 Some Further Notes 142
4.9 Summary 145
References 146
5 Processes 148
5.1 Processes as Interaction 148
5.2 Types of Processes 150
Homeostatic Processes 152
Adaptive Processes 153
Depicting Processes 154
5.3 Primary and Secondary Processes 155
Primary Process 156
Secondary Processes 157
5.4 Process and Function 158
5.5 Systems of Resources 161
5.6 Behaviour and Processes 162
5.7 Processes and Blackbox Approach 164
5.8 Business Process Mapping 166
Structured Systems Analysis and Design Methodology 167
International DEFinition Method 168
ASME Mapping Standard 170
Unified Modelling Language 171
Soft Systems Methodology 172
5.9 Summary 173
References 174
6 Control of Processes 175
6.1 Generic Concept of Control 176
6.2 Control and Directing 179
6.3 Feedback as Control Mechanism 182
6.4 Feedforward as Control Mechanism 187
6.5 Completing Deficiencies 191
6.6 Application of Control Mechanisms 193
6.7 Echelons of Control 197
6.8 Law of Requisite Variety 198
6.9 Summary 200
References 201
7 Steady-State Model 203
7.1 Boundary Control 203
Steady State 204
Boundary Zones 206
Heterostasis 208
7.2 Input Boundary Zone 209
Coding 210
Quality Filter Input 211
Control Mechanism (Feedforward) 211
Input Buffer 212
Overflow (Valve) 212
7.3 Output Boundary Zone 213
Control Mechanisms (Feedback and Completing Deficiencies) 213
Output Buffer 215
Overflow (Valve) 215
Decoding 216
7.4 Regulatory Boundary Zone 216
Initiating Process 216
Evaluation Process 217
7.5 Limitations of Steady-State Model 219
7.6 Summary 221
References 222
8 Autopoietic Systems 223
8.1 Autopoiesis 224
8.2 Principles of Autopoiesis 225
8.3 Autopoiesis and Self-Organisation 226
Self-organised Criticality 229
Self-organisation versus Entropy 230
Autopoietic Aspects of Self-Organisation 231
8.4 Interaction with Environment 231
8.5 Perception and Cognition 233
8.6 Allopoietic Systems 234
Allopoietic Systems as Creation 234
Stakeholders and Boundary Critique 236
8.7 Social Systems as Autopoietic Systems 237
8.8 Summary 238
References 239
9 Complex Adaptive Systems 241
9.1 Dimensions of Complexity 241
9.2 Attributes of Complex Adaptive Systems 243
Distributed Control 243
Connectivity 244
Co-Evolution 245
9.3 Fitness Landscapes 247
Wright’s Adaptive Landscape 247
Random Fitness Landscapes 249
Rugged Fitness Landscapes 251
Co-Evolution and NK-model 254
9.4 Self-Organisation by Complex Adaptive Systems 254
Simple Rules and Complex Behaviour 255
Attractors 255
Dissipative Structures 256
Edge-of-Chaos 257
9.5 Recursive Behaviour 257
9.6 Connectivity in Human-influenced Networks 259
9.7 Summary 261
References 262
10 Organisations and Breakthrough 264
10.1 Adaptation by Organisations 265
Creation of Mutations 265
Organisations as Allopoietic Systems 268
Evolution by Organisations 270
10.2 Processes of Foresight 274
Strategy 274
Dynamic Strategies 276
Forecasting 277
Techniques for Foresight 279
Scenario Planning 280
10.3 Breakthrough Model 284
Strategy Formation 284
Confrontation and Tuning 285
Configuration and Resource Allocation 286
Operations 287
Verification of Master Plan 288
Evaluation of Strategy 289
10.4 Model for the Dynamic Adapation Capability 289
Learning Processes and Innovation Impact Points 290
Dynamic Adaptation Capability 291
10.5 Differences with Steady-State Model 293
Capability for Adaptation 293
Linking Steady State to Breakthrough 294
10.6 Summary 294
References 295
11 Applications of System Theories 298
11.1 Systems Engineering 299
11.2 Biological Systems 301
Systems Biology 302
Biological Ecosystems 304
11.3 Organisations 306
Management Cybernetics 307
Analysis and Design of Organisations 308
Organisations as Allopoietic Systems 310
Evolutionary Approaches for Organisations 311
11.4 Other Systems Theories in Brief 314
System Dynamics 314
Soft Systems Methodology 316
The Viable System Model 318
MetaSystem Transition Theory 319
Critical Systems Thinking 320
11.5 Research Methods 322
11.6 Concluding Remarks 324
References 325
Index 329