LED Lighting for Urban Agriculture (eBook)
X, 435 Seiten
Springer Singapore (Verlag)
978-981-10-1848-0 (ISBN)
This book focuses on light-emitting diode (LED) lighting, mainly for the commercial production of horticultural crops in plant factories and greenhouses with controlled environments, giving special attention to: 1) plant growth and development as affected by the light environment; and 2) business and technological opportunities and challenges with regard to LEDs. The book contains more than 30 chapters grouped into seven parts: 1) overview of controlled-environment agriculture and its significance; 2) the effects of ambient light on plant growth and development; 3) optical and physiological characteristics of plant leaves and canopies; 4) greenhouse crop production with supplemental LED lighting; 5) effects of light quality on plant physiology and morphology; 6) current status of commercial plant factories under LED lighting; and 7) basics of LEDs and LED lighting for plant cultivation.
LED lighting for urban agriculture in the forthcoming decades will not be just an advanced form of current urban agriculture. It will be largely based on two fields: One is a new paradigm and rapidly advancing concepts, global technologies for LEDs, information and communication technology, renewable energy, and related expertise and their methodologies; the other is basic science and technology that should not change for the next several decades. Consideration should be given now to future urban agriculture based on those two fields.
The tremendous potentials of LED lighting for urban agriculture are stimulating many people in various fields including researchers, businesspeople, policy makers, educators, students, community developers, architects, designers, and entrepreneurs. Readers of this book will understand the principle, concept, design, operation, social roles, pros and cons, costs and benefits of LED lighting for urban agriculture, and its possibilities and challenges for solving local as well as global agricultural, environmental, and social issues.
This book focuses on light-emitting diode (LED) lighting, mainly for the commercial production of horticultural crops in plant factories and greenhouses with controlled environments, giving special attention to: 1) plant growth and development as affected by the light environment; and 2) business and technological opportunities and challenges with regard to LEDs. The book contains more than 30 chapters grouped into seven parts: 1) overview of controlled-environment agriculture and its significance; 2) the effects of ambient light on plant growth and development; 3) optical and physiological characteristics of plant leaves and canopies; 4) greenhouse crop production with supplemental LED lighting; 5) effects of light quality on plant physiology and morphology; 6) current status of commercial plant factories under LED lighting; and 7) basics of LEDs and LED lighting for plant cultivation. LED lighting for urban agriculture in the forthcoming decades will not be just an advancedform of current urban agriculture. It will be largely based on two fields: One is a new paradigm and rapidly advancing concepts, global technologies for LEDs, information and communication technology, renewable energy, and related expertise and their methodologies; the other is basic science and technology that should not change for the next several decades. Consideration should be given now to future urban agriculture based on those two fields. The tremendous potentials of LED lighting for urban agriculture are stimulating many people in various fields including researchers, businesspeople, policy makers, educators, students, community developers, architects, designers, and entrepreneurs. Readers of this book will understand the principle, concept, design, operation, social roles, pros and cons, costs and benefits of LED lighting for urban agriculture, and its possibilities and challenges for solving local as well as global agricultural, environmental, and social issues.
Toyoki Kozai, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus, President of Japan Plant Factory Association (NPO), 6-2-1 Kashiwano-ha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277- 0882, JapanKazuhiro Fujiwara, Ph.D., Professor, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, JapanErik S. Runkle, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Horticulture, Michigan State University, A240-C Plant & Soil Sciences Building, 1066 Bogue Street, East Lansing, MI 48824-1325, USA
Acknowledgments 5
Contents 6
Part I: Perspective and Significance of LED Lighting for Urban Agriculture 10
Chapter 1: Why LED Lighting for Urban Agriculture? 11
1.1 Introduction 11
1.1.1 Benefits of Urban Agriculture 12
1.1.2 Benefits of Using Light-Emitting Diodes 12
1.2 Scope of this Publication 13
1.3 Technological Background to the Urban Agriculture of the Future 15
1.3.1 Local and Global Technology 15
1.3.2 Introducing Global Technology Locally 16
1.3.3 Innovative Global Technologies Influencing Next-Generation Urban Agriculture 17
1.3.3.1 Reductions in the Cost of Information and Bioinformatics 17
1.3.3.2 Levelized Cost of Electricity Generated from Renewable Energy Sources 18
1.3.3.3 3D Printing 19
1.4 Next-Generation Urban Agriculture 20
1.5 Closed Plant Production System (CPPS) (Kozai 2013 Kozai et al. 2015)
1.5.1 Concept of CPPS 21
1.5.2 Estimating Rate Variable Values in the CPPS 22
1.5.3 Resource Use Efficiency (RUE) and Cost Performance (CP) 23
1.5.4 Rate Variable Control 23
1.5.5 Current Advantages of PFAL 24
1.5.6 Current Disadvantages and Challenges of PFAL 25
References 26
Chapter 2: Integrated Urban Controlled Environment Agriculture Systems 27
2.1 Introduction 28
2.2 Recent Evolution of CEA 29
2.2.1 Protected Cultivation 29
2.2.2 Greenhouses 29
2.2.3 Controlled Environment Plant Production Systems (CEPPS) 30
2.2.4 Phytomation 31
2.2.5 Plant Factories with Artificial Light 31
2.3 CEA´s Role and Participants Within Urban Food and Agriculture Systems 32
2.4 CEA´s Functional Components and Subsystems 33
2.4.1 CEA as Integrated Systems: An ACESys Model 34
2.5 Intelligence-Empowered CEA 36
2.6 CEA Systems Informatics and Analytics 38
2.6.1 ConSEnT for CEA Decision Support 39
2.6.2 Decision Support and Analytics 40
2.7 Current and Future CEA Challenges and Opportunities 41
2.7.1 Challenges 42
2.7.2 Opportunities 42
2.8 Concluding Remarks 43
References 43
Chapter 3: Open-Source Agriculture Initiative-Food for the Future? 45
3.1 Food Computing 46
3.2 Open Platforms and Open Data 50
3.3 Integrating Artificial Intelligence Experimentation 50
3.4 Building the IoF and Enabling Communities 52
3.5 A Platform for Expression 53
References 54
Part II: Plant Growth and Development as Affected by Light 55
Chapter 4: Some Aspects of the Light Environment 56
4.1 Light as an Energy and Signal Source 56
4.2 Components of the Light Environment 57
4.2.1 Spectral Distribution of Light Within the Plant Canopy 57
4.3 Light Environment in PFALs 58
4.3.1 Characteristics of LED Arrays as Light Source 58
4.3.2 Spatial Distribution of PPFD in Empty Cultivation Spaces in PFALs 59
4.3.3 Light Environment as Affected by Plant Canopies in Cultivation Spaces 59
4.4 Supplemental Upward Lighting 60
4.5 Supplemental Lighting in Greenhouses 61
4.5.1 Purpose of Supplemental Lighting in Greenhouses 61
4.5.2 Environmental Control for Efficient Supplemental Lighting 61
References 62
Chapter 5: Light Acts as a Signal for Regulation of Growth and Development 63
5.1 Photoreceptors and Their Function 63
5.1.1 Phytochromes (Phy) 65
5.1.2 Cryptochromes (Crys) 67
5.1.3 Phototropins (Phots) 67
5.1.4 Zeitlupe Family Proteins (ZTL/FKF1/LKP2) 68
5.1.5 UV-B Receptor (UVR8) 68
5.2 Light-Dependent Seed Germination 68
5.3 De-etiolation 70
5.4 Phototropism 71
5.5 Shade-Avoidance Response 72
5.6 Circadian Rhythms and Biological Responses 73
5.7 The Gating Effects of Circadian Clocks 75
References 76
Chapter 6: Factors Affecting Flowering Seasonality 80
6.1 Photoperiodic Flowering 80
6.2 Florigen and Anti-florigen 81
6.3 Flowering and Seasonal Time Measurement 83
6.4 Flowering Time Regulation in Chrysanthemum 85
6.5 Molecular Mechanisms of Photoperiodic Flowering in Rice 87
6.6 Flowering Time Regulation in Other Plant Species 87
6.7 Vernalization 89
References 90
Chapter 7: Light Environment in the Cultivation Space of Plant Factory with LEDs 95
7.1 Introduction 95
7.2 Materials and Methods 96
7.2.1 Software 96
7.2.2 Variables and Their Values Assumed as Unique Input Data 96
7.2.3 Factors Examined to Show Their Effects on PPFD Distribution 96
7.2.3.1 Variables Characterizing Horizontal and Vertical PPFD Distributions 100
7.3 Results and Discussion 100
7.3.1 Summary of C-PPFD and %L 100
7.3.2 Summary of S-PPFD 100
7.3.3 Case 1: Reflectance (r) of Culture Panel Surface 102
7.3.4 Case 2: Width (W) of Vertical Side Reflectors 102
7.3.5 Case 3: Uneven Distance Between LED Tubes 105
7.3.6 Case 4: Perpendicular Layout (Fig.7.4a) 105
7.3.7 Case 5: Narrow Angular Light Distribution 106
7.3.8 Case 6: Height of Plant Canopy (h) 107
7.4 Some Consideration on Optimal Light Environment 108
7.4.1 Optimal PPFD? 108
7.4.1.1 Optimal Lighting Direction 110
7.4.2 Optimal Photo- and Dark Periods? 110
7.4.3 Optimal Light Quality? 111
7.4.3.1 Light Source for Far-Red and Ultraviolet (UV) 111
7.4.4 Interactions Among Environmental Factors 111
7.5 Future Work 112
7.5.1 Challenges 112
References 113
Part III: Optical and Physiological Characteristics of a Plant Leaf and a Canopy 114
Chapter 8: Optical and Physiological Properties of a Leaf 115
8.1 Introduction 115
8.2 Optical Properties of a Leaf 116
8.2.1 Leaf Orientation and the Vertical Light Profiles Within a Leaf 117
8.2.2 Pigments and Spectral Absorption of a Leaf 118
8.3 Physiological Properties of a Leaf 120
8.3.1 Photosynthesis 120
8.3.2 Transpiration 123
8.3.3 Translocation 124
References 125
Chapter 9: Optical and Physiological Properties of a Plant Canopy 126
9.1 Introduction 126
9.2 Light Attenuation Through Plant Canopy 127
9.3 Extinction Coefficients in Plant Canopy 128
9.4 Consideration of Spectral Properties Within the Canopy 131
9.5 Canopy Photosynthesis 132
9.5.1 Characteristics of Canopy Photosynthesis 132
9.5.2 Simple Method for Estimating Canopy Photosynthetic Rate 133
9.5.3 Growth Analysis 135
References 136
Chapter 10: Evaluation of Spatial Light Environment and Plant Canopy Structure 137
10.1 Introduction 137
10.2 Measurement of PPFD Distribution in a Plant Canopy 138
10.3 Evaluation of Plant Canopy Structure 139
10.4 LAI Estimation 140
10.4.1 Direct and Indirect Estimation 140
10.4.2 Methods Using Gap Fraction 141
10.4.3 The Use of Spectral Reflectance 142
10.4.4 Image Analysis 144
10.5 Estimation of PPFD Distribution on Plant Canopy Surface 144
10.5.1 Importance of Understanding Light Distribution on the Canopy Surface 144
10.5.2 Reflection Image-Based Estimation Method of PPFD on Canopy Surface 145
10.5.3 Applications 147
References 149
Chapter 11: Lighting Efficiency in Plant Production Under Artificial Lighting and Plant Growth Modeling for Evaluating the Lighting Efficiency 150
11.1 Introduction 150
11.2 Light Energy Received by Leaves 151
11.2.1 Light Use Efficiency 151
11.2.2 Ratio of Light Energy Received by the Plants 152
11.2.3 Improving Electrical Energy Use Efficiency 153
11.3 Lighting Efficiency Based on PPFD Distribution on a Canopy Surface 154
11.4 Plant Growth Modeling for Evaluating Lighting Efficiency 156
11.4.1 Simple Growth Model 156
11.4.2 2D and 3D Modeling for Vegetative Growth 157
References 159
Chapter 12: Effects of Physical Environment on Photosynthesis, Respiration, and Transpiration 161
12.1 Introduction 162
12.2 Transpiration 162
12.2.1 Water Vapor Diffusion Model 162
12.2.2 Effects of Humidity 164
12.2.3 Effects of Rhizosphere Environment 165
12.2.4 Effects of Light Intensity and Spectrum 165
12.2.5 Effects of CO2 Concentration 165
12.2.6 Effects of Temperature 166
12.3 Respiration 166
12.3.1 Dark Respiration and Photorespiration 166
12.3.2 Effects of Temperature 167
12.3.3 Effects of O2 and CO2 Concentrations 168
12.3.4 Effects of Light Intensity 168
12.4 Photosynthesis 169
12.4.1 CO2 Diffusion Model 169
12.4.2 Effects of CO2 Concentration 170
12.4.3 Effects of Light Intensity 171
12.4.4 Effects of Temperature 172
References 172
Chapter 13: Air Current Around Single Leaves and Plant Canopies and Its Effect on Transpiration, Photosynthesis, and Plant Organ Temperatures 174
13.1 Introduction 175
13.2 Effects of Air Current Speed on Boundary Layer Resistance, Photosynthesis, and Transpiration of Single Leaves 175
13.3 Effect of Air Current Speed on the Surface Temperatures of Plant Organs 180
13.4 Effects of Light Intensity and Air Current Speed on the Air Temperature, Water Vapor Pressure, and CO2 Concentration Insi... 181
13.5 Concluding Remarks 182
References 183
Part IV: Greenhouse Crop Production with Supplemental LED Lighting 185
Chapter 14: Control of Flowering Using Night-Interruption and Day-Extension LED Lighting 186
14.1 Introduction 187
14.2 Conventional Lamps 187
14.3 Light-Emitting Diodes 188
14.3.1 Critical Wavebands for Regulation of Flowering of Long-Day Plants 188
14.3.2 Critical Wavebands for Regulation of Flowering of Short-Day Plants 191
14.3.3 Comparisons Between Conventional Lamps and Light-Emitting Diodes 192
14.4 Concluding Summary 194
References 195
Chapter 15: Control of Morphology by Manipulating Light Quality and Daily Light Integral Using LEDs 197
15.1 Introduction 197
15.2 Effects of DLI on Plant Morphology 198
15.3 Effects of Light Quality on Plant Morphology 198
15.3.1 Red Light 199
15.3.2 Blue Light 199
15.3.3 Far-Red Light 200
15.4 Supplemental Lighting 200
15.4.1 LED Supplemental Lighting for Ornamental Seedling and Cutting Propagation 201
15.4.2 LED Supplemental Light for Ornamental Crop Finishing 206
15.4.3 LED Supplemental Light for Vegetable Production 207
15.5 Concluding Summary 208
References 209
Chapter 16: Supplemental Lighting for Greenhouse-Grown Fruiting Vegetables 212
16.1 Introduction 212
16.2 Types of SL and Light Sources for Fruiting Vegetables 213
16.2.1 Overhead/Top SL 213
16.2.1.1 HID Lamps for Overhead SL 213
16.2.1.2 LEDs for Overhead SL 214
16.2.1.3 Application of Overhead SL 214
16.2.2 Combination of Overhead and Intracanopy SL 215
16.2.2.1 Light Distribution in Tall Greenhouse Crops 215
16.2.2.2 Intracanopy Lighting 215
16.2.2.3 Application of Overhead and Intracanopy SL 216
16.2.3 Intracanopy SL Alone 217
16.2.3.1 Conditions for the Use of Intracanopy Lighting Alone 217
16.2.3.2 Application of Intracanopy SL Alone 218
16.3 Light Intensities, Photoperiods, and DLIs of SL 219
16.4 LED SL for Improving Fruit Quality 220
16.5 Other Aspects of Using SL 221
16.6 Economic Considerations for Greenhouse SL 222
References 224
Chapter 17: Recent Developments in Plant Lighting 226
17.1 Introduction 226
17.2 The 8th International Symposium on Light in Horticulture 227
17.3 New Horticultural Lighting Book 227
17.4 Standards for Plant Lighting Applications 227
17.5 Efficiency and Efficacy 228
References 229
Part V: Light-Quality Effects on Plant Physiology and Morphology 230
Chapter 18: Effect of Light Quality on Secondary Metabolite Production in Leafy Greens and Seedlings 231
18.1 Introduction 231
18.2 Antioxidant Ability 232
18.3 Vitamins 240
18.4 Eating Quality Improvement 242
18.5 Color Development 247
18.6 Concluding Summary 249
References 252
Chapter 19: Induction of Plant Disease Resistance and Other Physiological Responses by Green Light Illumination 253
19.1 Introduction 253
19.2 Induction of Disease Resistance by Green Light Illumination 254
19.2.1 Effects of Light Quality on Gene Expression Related to Disease Resistance 254
19.2.2 Effects of Green Light on Strawberry Anthracnose 256
19.2.3 Effects of Green Light on Corynespora Leaf Spot Disease 258
19.3 Various Effects of Green Light 259
19.3.1 Spider Mite Control 260
19.3.2 Growth Promotion 260
19.3.3 Increase in Functional Substances and Sugar Content 262
19.3.4 Dormancy Suppression, Flower Bud Differentiation, and Bolting 264
19.4 Conclusion 264
References 265
Chapter 20: Light Quality Effects on Intumescence (Oedema) on Plant Leaves 266
20.1 Introduction 266
20.2 Description and Impact of Intumescences 268
20.2.1 Anatomy and Morphology 268
20.2.2 Genetics 268
20.2.3 Photosynthesis and Yield 268
20.2.4 Aesthetic and Economic Impact 270
20.3 Light Quality Affects Intumescence 270
20.3.1 Ultraviolet Light 271
20.3.1.1 Prevention of Intumescence 273
20.3.1.2 Molecular Mechanisms 273
20.3.2 Blue and Green Light 274
20.3.3 Red and Far Red 275
20.3.4 Concluding Summary 276
References 276
Part VI: Current Status of Commercial Plant Factories with LED Lighting 278
Chapter 21: Business Models for Plant Factory With Artificial Lighting (PFAL) in Taiwan 279
21.1 Introduction 279
21.2 Business Models 280
21.3 Conclusion 282
References 283
Chapter 22: Current Status of Commercial Plant Factories with LED Lighting Market in Asia, Europe, and Other Regions 284
22.1 Introduction 284
22.2 Current Market Status in Japan 285
22.2.1 Background on the Japanese PFAL Industry 285
22.2.2 Current Trends of Japanese PFAL Industry 285
22.2.3 Current Japanese LED PFAL and LED Lighting Market Trends 287
22.3 Current Market Status in Europe, Asia, and Other Regions 289
22.3.1 Current Market Status in Europe 289
22.3.2 Current Market Status in Asia and Other Regions 294
22.4 Conclusion: Predictions for PFALs with LED Lightings 297
References 297
Chapter 23: Current Status of Commercial Vertical Farms with LED Lighting Market in North America 298
23.1 Introduction 298
23.2 Background on the North American Vertical Farming Industry 299
23.3 Current Vertical Farming Lighting Market Trends 301
23.4 Current Status of the LED Lights Designed for Vertical Farms 303
23.5 Conclusion: Predictions for Vertical Farm Lighting 304
Reference 304
Chapter 24: Global LED Lighting Players, Economic Analysis, and Market Creation for PFALs 305
24.1 Introduction 305
24.2 Global Plant Factory LED Lighting Players 306
24.2.1 Global Trends of Plant Factory LED Lighting Players 306
24.2.1.1 Lighting Companies Designing LED Grow Light for PFALs or Vertical Farms 306
24.2.2 Plant Factory LED Lighting Players Headquartered in Asia 307
24.2.3 Plant Factory LED Lighting Players Headquartered in Europe 317
24.2.4 Plant Factory LED Lighting Players Headquartered in North America 325
24.3 Economic Analysis 329
24.4 Market Creation for PFALs 331
Reference 333
Chapter 25: Consumer Perception and Understanding of Vegetables Produced at Plant Factories with Artificial Lighting 334
25.1 Introduction 335
25.2 Consumer Perception of PFAL-Produced Vegetables in Japan 336
25.2.1 Consumer Impressions of PFALs and Their Products 336
25.2.2 Impact of Knowledge on Consumer Impressions 338
25.3 Consumer Understanding of PFAL-Produced Vegetables in Japan 340
25.3.1 Awareness and Recognition Process 340
25.3.2 Level of Understanding 341
25.3.3 Factors Affecting the Degree of Anxiety 342
25.4 Case Study in Hong Kong 343
25.4.1 Awareness, Understanding, and Impression in Hong Kong 343
25.4.2 Relationship Between Knowledge and Confidence 345
25.5 Future Prospects of the Plant Factory Business 346
25.5.1 Potential Demand for PFAL-Produced Vegetables 347
25.5.2 Necessity of Marketing Activities and Education 348
25.6 Conclusion 348
References 349
Part VII: Basics of LEDs and LED Lighting Systems for Plant Cultivation 351
Chapter 26: Radiometric, Photometric and Photonmetric Quantities and Their Units 352
26.1 Introduction 352
26.2 Importance of Photonmetric Quantities for Plant Cultivation 353
26.3 Fundamental Quantities in Radiometry, Photometry and Photonmetry and Their SI Units 353
26.3.1 Radiant Intensity [W sr-1] 353
26.3.2 Radiant Flux (Radiant Power) [W] (= [J s-1]) 354
26.3.3 Radiant Energy [J] 354
26.3.4 Irradiance [W m-2] 354
26.3.5 Luminous Intensity [cd] 354
26.3.6 Luminous Flux [lm] 355
26.3.7 Quantity of Light [lm s] 355
26.3.8 Illuminance [lx] 355
26.3.9 Photon Intensity [mol s-1 sr-1] 355
26.3.10 Photon Flux [mol s-1] 355
26.3.11 Photon Number (Number of Photons) [mol] 356
26.3.12 Photon Flux Density (Photon Irradiance) [mol m-2 s-1] 356
26.4 Spectral Distribution of Radiometric, Photometric and Photonmetric Quantities 356
26.5 Quantitative Relations of Radiometric, Photometric and Photonmetric Quantities 357
26.6 Photosynthetically Active Radiation 360
References 361
Chapter 27: Basics of LEDs for Plant Cultivation 362
27.1 Introduction 362
27.2 Definitions of LED Product Terms 363
27.2.1 LED 363
27.2.2 LED Package 363
27.2.3 LED Module 364
27.2.4 LED Control Gear 364
27.2.5 LED Lamp 364
27.2.6 LED Light Source 364
27.2.7 LED Luminaire 365
27.2.8 LED Lighting System 365
27.3 Light-Emitting Principle of an LED 365
27.4 LED Package Configuration Types 365
27.5 Basic Terms for Expressing Optical, Electrical, and Radiational Characteristics of an LED 366
27.5.1 Forward Current [A] 366
27.5.2 Half Width (at Half Maximum) [nm] 366
27.5.3 Luminous Intensity [cd] 368
27.5.4 Radiant Flux [W] (= [J s-1]) 369
27.5.5 Peak Wavelength [nm] 369
27.5.6 Viewing Half Angle [] 369
27.6 Optical, Electrical, and Radiational Characteristics in LED Operation 369
27.7 Lighting Methods 370
27.8 Radiant Flux Control Methods 370
27.9 Special Requirements for LED Lamps to Cultivate Plants 372
27.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Use of LED Lamps in Plant Cultivation 373
27.10.1 Advantages of the Use of LED Lamps 373
27.10.2 Disadvantages of the Use of LED Lamps 375
27.11 Luminous Efficacy and Energy-Photon Conversion Efficacy for Plant Cultivation 377
27.11.1 Luminous Efficacy 377
27.11.2 Energy-Photon Conversion Efficacy for Plant Cultivation 377
References 378
Chapter 28: Measurement of Photonmetric and Radiometric Characteristics of LEDs for Plant Cultivation 379
28.1 Plant Light Environment 379
28.1.1 Spectral Distribution Curve 379
28.1.2 Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density (PPFD) 380
28.1.3 Ratio of the Photon Fluxes of a Specific Wavelength Range 382
28.1.4 Creation of a Summary Table of Characteristics of Light Quality Environment 382
28.2 Characteristics of LED Lighting System 382
28.2.1 Spectral Distribution (Spectral Radiant/Luminous Flux Distribution) 383
28.2.2 Angular Distribution of Luminous Intensity (Luminous Intensity Distribution) 383
28.2.3 Photosynthetically Active Radiant Energy Efficiency (J J-1) 384
28.2.4 Photosynthetic Photon Number Efficacy (mumol J-1) 384
28.2.5 Creation of a Summary Table of Characteristics of LED Lighting System 385
References 386
Chapter 29: Configuration, Function, and Operation of LED Lighting Systems 387
29.1 Introduction 387
29.2 Semiconductor p-n Junction and Light Emission 389
29.3 Regulation of Emission 390
29.3.1 Basic LED Drive Circuits 391
29.3.2 LED Lighting Mode for Plant Cultivations 392
29.4 Heat Dissipation 393
29.5 Distribution of Photon Flux Densities on an Irradiated Surface 395
References 397
Chapter 30: Energy Balance and Energy Conversion Process of LEDs and LED Lighting Systems 400
30.1 Luminous Efficacy and the Conversion Efficiency from Electrical Input into Photosynthetically Active Radiation 400
30.2 Light and Electricity Use Efficiencies 402
30.2.1 PAR Energy Use Efficiency and Electrical Energy Use Efficiency Based on Plant Dry Mass 402
30.2.2 Photosynthetic Photon Use Efficiency and Electrical Energy Use Efficiency Based on Net Photosynthetic Rate 403
30.3 Factors Affecting Electrical Energy Use Efficiency Based on Plant Dry Mass 404
30.3.1 Electrical Energy Consumed by Lamps During Cultivation per Cultivation Area and PAR Energy per Cultivation Area Emitted... 404
30.3.2 PAR Energy Received in Cultivation Area with or Without Plants 405
30.3.3 Light Energy Fixation as Chemical Energy of Plant Dry Mass 407
References 408
Chapter 31: Health Effects of Occupational Exposure to LED Light: A Special Reference to Plant Cultivation Works in Plant Factories 411
31.1 Introduction 411
31.2 Color Perception and Plant Cultivation Work 412
31.2.1 Neural Basis of Color Perception 412
31.2.2 Psychophysical Laws of Color Perception 414
31.2.3 The Standard Chromaticity Diagram 415
31.2.4 Color Constancy 417
31.2.5 Color Appearance of Green Plants Under LED Lighting 418
31.3 Possible Health Effects of Monochromatic LED Light in Plant Factories and Greenhouses with Artificial Lighting 419
31.3.1 Circadian Rhythm 419
31.3.2 Hazardous Effects of BL on the Eye 421
31.3.3 Hazardous Effects of UV-C on the Eye 422
31.4 Glare and Plant Cultivation Works 422
31.5 The Desirable Lighting Environment for the Laborers and the Occupational Health Regulations of Lighting 423
References 424
Chapter 32: Moving Toward Self-Learning Closed Plant Production Systems 426
32.1 Introduction 426
32.2 Mission 427
32.3 Next-Generation CPPS: s-CPPS 427
References 429
Index 430
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 8.11.2016 |
|---|---|
| Zusatzinfo | X, 454 p. 195 illus., 118 illus. in color. |
| Verlagsort | Singapore |
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie |
| Naturwissenschaften ► Physik / Astronomie | |
| Technik | |
| Weitere Fachgebiete ► Land- / Forstwirtschaft / Fischerei | |
| Schlagworte | City farming • Indoor Farming • Innovation in agriculture • Urban Agriculture • Vertical Farming |
| ISBN-10 | 981-10-1848-0 / 9811018480 |
| ISBN-13 | 978-981-10-1848-0 / 9789811018480 |
| Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt? |
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