Preface 5
Table of Contents 9
1 Introduction 16
Three Reference Classes of Hypersonic Vehicles 17
Aerothermodynamics and the Definition and Development of Flight Vehicles 19
Design Sensitivities and Margins versus Data Uncertainties 19
Deficits of Aerothermodynamic Simulation Means 20
Scope and Content of the Book 23
References 24
2 Short Introduction to Flight Trajectories for Aerothermodynamicists 26
Flight Trajectories of Winged and Non-Winged Re-Entry Vehicles 28
General Aspects 28
Guidance Objectives, Trajectory Control Variables, and Systems and Operational Constraints 31
Forces Acting on a Re-Entry Vehicle 36
The Equilibrium Glide Trajectory 39
Equilibrium Glide Trajectory: Qualitative Results 42
Case Study 1: Trajectories of RV-NW's 47
Case Study 2: Trajectory of a RV-W (X-38) 49
Flight Trajectories of Cruise and Acceleration Vehicles 52
General Aspects 52
Guidance Objectives, Trajectory Control Variables, and Systems and Operational Constraints 55
Forces Acting on a Cruise and Acceleration Vehicle 57
Case Study 3: Trajectory of a CAV (SÄNGER) 59
General Equations for Planetary Flight 62
Problems 69
References 70
3 Aerothermodynamic Design Problems of Winged Re-Entry Vehicles 73
Overview of Aerothermodynamic Issues of Winged Re-Entry Vehicles 73
Aerothermodynamic Phenomena 73
Major Simulation Problem: High Mach Number and Total Enthalpy Effects 78
Particular Trends in RV-W Aerothermodynamics 78
Stagnation Pressure 78
Topology of the Windward Side Velocity Field 81
Lift Generation 85
Base Pressure and Drag 87
Aerodynamic Performance Data of RV-W's 88
Space Shuttle Orbiter 89
HERMES Configuration 92
HOPE-X Configuration 95
X-34 Configuration 96
X-38 Configuration 99
HOPPER/PHOENIX Configuration 103
Summary 105
Vehicle Flyability and Controllability 108
General Considerations 108
Trim and Stability of RV-W's 109
The Hypersonic Pitching Moment Anomaly of the Space Shuttle Orbiter 112
Trim Situation and Possible Causes of the Pitching Moment Anomaly 113
Pressure Coefficient Distribution at the Windward Side of the Orbiter 115
The Forward Shift of the Center-of-Pressure 121
The Hypersonic Pitching Moment Anomaly in View of Oswatitsch's Mach Number Independence Principle 123
Introduction 123
Wall Pressure Coefficient Distribution 125
A Simple Analysis of Flight Mach Number and High-Temperature Real Gas Effects 131
Reconsideration of the Pitching Moment Anomaly and Summary of Results 133
Concluding Remarks 135
Problems 135
References 137
4 Aerothermodynamic Design Problems of Winged Airbreathing Vehicles 142
Overview of Aerothermodynamic Issues of Cruise and Acceleration Vehicles 143
Aerothermodynamic Phenomena 143
Major Simulation Problem: Viscous Effects 150
Particular Trends in CAV/ARV Aerothermodynamics 154
Stagnation Pressure 154
Topology of the Forebody Windward Side Velocity Field 155
Lift Generation 155
Base Pressure and Drag 155
Aerodynamic Performance 157
Example: Flight Parameters and Aerodynamic Coefficients of the Reference Concept SÄNGER 158
General Configurational Aspects: Highly Coupled Lift and Propulsion System 166
Some Vehicle Shape Considerations 166
Bookkeeping of Aerothermodynamic and Propulsion System Forces 169
Issues of Aerothermodynamic Airframe/PropulsionIntegration 177
Forebody Effect 178
Flat versus Conical Lower Side of Forebody 179
Principle of Forebody Pre-Compression 181
Net Thrust Sensitivity on Pre-Compression 185
Inlet Ramp Flow 188
Waverider Configurations 192
Introduction 192
Design Methods 193
Exemplary Waverider Designs 198
Influence of Viscous Effects on the Aerodynamic Performance 201
Off-Design and Low-Speed Behavior 205
Static Stability Considerations 212
Waverider—Operable Vehicle? 213
Problems 216
References 218
5 Aerothermodynamic Design Problems of Non-Winged Re-Entry Vehicles 223
Introduction and Entry Strategies 223
Aerobraking 225
Aerocapturing 226
Ballistic Flight—Ballistic Factor 226
General Configurational Aspects 227
Ballistic Probes 227
Lifting Capsules 230
Bicones 234
Trim Conditions and Static Stability of RV-NW's 236
Park's Formula 236
Performance Data of Lifting Capsules 238
Controlled Flight and the Role of theCenter-of-Gravity 242
Sensitivity of Aerodynamics against Shape Variations 245
Parasite Trim 247
Performance Data of Bicones 249
Influence of High Temperature, Real Gas Effects on Forces and Moments 253
Dynamic Stability 256
Physics of Dynamic Instability 257
Equation of Angular Motion 261
Experimental Methods 265
Numerical Methods 269
Typical Experimental Results 270
Thermal Loads 273
OREX Suborbital Flight 274
ARD Suborbital Flight 275
APOLLO Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and Lunar Return 277
VIKING-Type Shape Technology Study 279
Problems 285
References 287
6 Stabilization, Trim, and Control Devices 291
Control Surface Aerothermodynamics, Introduction 291
Flap Effectiveness: Influence of the Onset Flow Field 292
Flap Deflection Modes during Hypersonic Flight 293
Onset Flow of Aerodynamic Trim and Control Surfaces 294
Overall Onset Flow Characteristics 294
Entropy Layer of the Onset Flow 299
The Onset Flow Boundary Layer 305
Asymptotic Consideration of Ramp Flow 310
Basic Types of Ramp Flow 310
Behavior of the Wall Pressure 313
Behavior of the Thermal State of the Surface 323
Behavior of the Wall-Shear Stress 336
Hinge-Line Gap Flow Issues 336
Aerothermodynamic Issues of Reaction Control Systems 341
Configurational Considerations 348
Examples of Stabilization, Trim and Control Devices 349
Geometrical Considerations 351
Flap Width versus Flap Length 352
Volumes of Stabilization and Control Surfaces 354
Concluding Remarks 359
Summary of Results 359
Simulation Issues 361
Problems 363
References 363
7 Forces,Moments, Center-of-Pressure, Trim, and Stability in General Formulation 368
Moment Equation 368
General Formulation of the Center-of-Pressure 371
Static Stability Considerations for Bluff Configurations 374
Static Stability Considerations for Slender Configurations 375
Further Contemplations of Static Stability 376
Coordinate Transformations of Force Coefficients 378
Problems 380
References 380
8 Multidisciplinary Design Aspects 381
Introduction and Short Overview of the Objectives of Multidisciplinary Design Work 383
Equations for Fluid-Structure Interaction Domains 386
Fluid Dynamics Equations 386
Structure Dynamics Equations 389
Heat Transport Equation 391
Coupling Procedures 392
Mechanical Fluid–Structure Interaction Aeroelastic Approach I 393
Mechanical Fluid–Structure Interaction Aeroelastic Approach II 394
Thermal–Mechanical Fluid–Structure Interaction 396
Examples of Coupled Solutions 399
Mechanical Fluid-Structure Interaction Aeroelastic Approach I 399
Mechanical Fluid–Structure Interaction Aeroelastic Approach II 399
Thermal–Fluid–Structure Interaction 405
Thermal–Mechanical–Fluid–Structure Interaction 414
Conclusion 417
Problems 418
References 419
9 The Thermal State of a Hypersonic Vehicle Surface 423
Heat Transport at a Vehicle Surface 424
The Thermal State of a Vehicle Surface 426
Aerothermodynamic Simulation Compendium 428
Ground-Facility Simulation 429
Computational Simulation 430
In-Flight Simulation 432
References 433
10 The gamma_{eff} Approach and Approximate Relations for the Determination of Aerothermodynamic Parameters 435
Elements of the RHPM$^{+}$ Flyer: $/gamma_{eff}$ Approach and Bow Shock Total Pressure Loss 435
Introduction and Delineation 435
The $/gamma_{eff}$ Approach: General Considerations 436
Normal Shock Wave 437
Oblique Shock Wave 441
Bow Shock Total Pressure Loss: Restitution of Parameters of a One-Dimensional Surface Flow 443
The Compressibility Factor Z 444
Results across Shocks in the Large M$_{1}$ LimitUsing $/gamma_{eff}$ 446
Transport Properties 447
Formulas for Stagnation Point Heating 449
Flat Surface Boundary Layer Parameters Based on the Reference-Temperature/Enthalpy Concept 451
Reference-Temperature/Enthalpy Concept 451
Boundary Layer Thicknesses Over Flat Surfaces 453
Wall Shear Stress and Thermal State at Flat Surfaces 454
Virtual Origin of Boundary Layers at Junctions 455
References 456
11 Solution Guide and Solutions of the Problems 458
Problems of Chapter 2 458
Problems of Chapter 3 459
Problems of Chapter 4 461
Problems of Chapter 5 464
Problems of Chapter 6 466
Problems of Chapter 7 468
Problems of Chapter 8 469
References 470
Appendix A The Governing Equations of Aerothermodynamics 471
A.1 Governing Equations for Chemical Non-Equilibrium Flow 471
A.2 Equations for Excitation of Molecular Vibrations and Electron Modes 476
A.3 Vector Form of Navier–Stokes Equations Including Thermal Non-Equilibrium 479
References 481
Appendix B The Earth’s Atmosphere 482
References 488
Appendix C Constants, Units and Conversions 489
C.1 Constants and Air Properties 489
C.2 Units and Conversions 490
References 492
Appendix D Symbols 493
D.1 Latin Letters 493
D.2 Greek Letters 498
D.3 Indices 500
D.4 Other Symbols 502
Appendix E Glossary, Abbreviations, Acronyms 504
E.1 Glossary 504
E.2 Abbreviations, Acronyms 506
Permissions 508
Name Index 509
Subject Index 515