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A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence

IN 1997, IBM's Deep Blue computer famously defeated world chess champion Garry Kasparov in a six-game match. This event marked a major milestone in the development of AI, as it demonstrated that a machine could outthink a human in a complex game with countless possible moves. The jubilation felt on achieving such a feat was mixed with hand-wringing that the age of machines was about to eclipse the age of humankind. Kasparov himself could not believe a machine could have defeated him and insisted this was a modern version of the Mechanical Turk, a 19th century con where a small person hid inside a supposed automaton and played chess.1,2 Despite these expressions of disbelief, the match captured the world's attention. Chess was, after all, an ancient game highly revered as an expression of human mental ability. This event sparked a new interest in the abilities of machines that could think and adapt and even outshine humans.

Nearly seven decades since the prefix “artificial” was attached to intelligence, we live on the cusp of one of the largest disruptions in human society. When the CEO of Google, Sundar Pichai, calls AI one of humanity's most profound inventions,3 and other tech luminaries such as Bill Gates argue, “The development of AI is as fundamental as the creation of the microprocessor, the personal computer, the Internet, and the mobile phone,”4 and Elon Musk goes so far as to deem it potentially more dangerous than nuclear weapons,5 it is hard to dismiss the furor around this new technology as hyperbole. We may indeed be living in a time of profound change.

Artificial intelligence's rise and awesome potential have been a topic of discussion among tech insiders for quite some time. Now, with the emergence of ChatGPT, a much greater slice of humanity is witnessing firsthand the impact of this technology in their daily lives. If there are skeptics questioning the impact and abilities of artificial intelligence, their doubts are certainly being challenged.

AI manifests in our lives in the form of self-driving cars, virtual assistants such as Alexa and Siri, and unprecedented information via search engines. It is even more prevalent behind the scenes, powering medical assistants, farming, and disaster response. AI developments are quickly transforming the way we work, communicate, and even think. The invention of the automobile changed landscapes and economies, while radio and telephone transformed communications and society. AI is poised to join these ranks of major disruptors in the coming years. We are witnessing the birth of a transformative force that will change how we make decisions and perceive the world around us.

However, the implications of this technological transformation are not without their challenges. There are concerns over privacy, security, and job displacement. Evidence shows that AI reflects some of society's worst habits, such as racial and societal bias. As AI continues to become more sophisticated and more integral to our lives, individuals and society must carefully consider its ethical implications. With the proper safeguards in place, the undeniable benefits of AI could usher in a new era of progress and prosperity for all.

How Innovators Throughout History Paved the Way for Modern AI: From Babbage to Turing

Artificial intelligence was long the province of fiction, fantasy, folklore, and myth. Inanimate objects developing human-like intelligence and abilities beyond our own are common in the stories we share. From figures such as mystical golems in Jewish tales and enigmatic homunculi of the Middle Ages to the evil computer HAL in 2001: A Space Odyssey and the iconic droids in Star Wars, these legends reflect our curiosity and desire to create intelligence in our image.

Next, we trace the broad outlines of AI's emergence, from early conceptualizations of universal calculating machines to the first manifestations of what we today call AI.

Charles Babbage

The first practical steps toward AI happened in the last 200 years. Charles Babbage (Figure 1.1) emerged as a seminal figure in the history of AI, revered by many as the progenitor of this field. Babbage, a brilliant mathematician and inventor, possessed an indomitable spirit, a penchant for spectacle, and an insatiable curiosity that led him to his brilliant achievements in computing.6,7 His fascination with automatons mimicking human intelligence was sparked at age eight when his mother whisked him away to a museum of scientific artifacts and wonders. There, he saw an artful creation—a dancer cradling a bird—so exquisitely crafted that it appeared lifelike. From that moment forward, Babbage's destiny was irrevocably entwined with the pursuit of crafting machines capable of emulating human behavior.

Figure 1.1 Drawing of Charles Babbage

Credit: The Illustrated London News / Wikimedia Commans / Public Domain.

In his late 20s in the early 1800s, Babbage designed the first mechanical computer, the Difference Engine. This groundbreaking machine could perform complex mathematical calculations, such as producing tables of logarithms.8,9 Indulging his showman tendencies, Babbage delighted in donning extravagant attire as he showcased his creation to the venerable Royal Society in London and other esteemed venues across England. Tales of his eccentricities, ranging from chasing musicians away from his abode when they impinged on his concentration to his fastidious craftsmanship, where gears and tools personally ground by him remained in use long after his death, embellished the legend of this extraordinary man.

The Difference Engine was never completed during Babbage's lifetime. It wasn't until the 1990s that it was finally built according to Babbage's design. It is on display at the London Science Museum, and a second one remains in the possession of a private donor who financed its creation.

Although Babbage was not able to see his design take life, it inspired his later, more audacious creation, the Analytical Engine. This was a much more ambitious endeavor, surpassing the Difference Engine in its versatility. Babbage intended it to be a general-purpose computing machine that could be instructed to perform any type of calculation. He envisioned tables of mathematical values being formulated, and these tables of values would inform calculations of things like dates of eclipses. Crucially, the Analytical Engine encompassed the fundamental duality of modern computers: the ability to store and process vast troves of data.

Regrettably, quarrels with his engineers and the drying up of funding meant that the Analytical Engine, like the earlier Difference Engine, was never built. It nevertheless stands as a major milestone in the history of computing. It was the first machine designed to be truly programmable. And it also helped to popularize the idea of artificial intelligence.

Ada Lovelace

Now recognized as the world's first computer programmer, Ada Lovelace (Figure 1.2) collaborated with Charles Babbage on his prototypes. When recounting the history of science and technology, the contributions of women have often been overlooked or underrepresented. But Ada Lovelace, daughter of the romantic poet Lord Byron and Anne Isabelle Milbanke, left her mark as indelibly as any male pioneer. Despite being born in the 19th century, when women's opportunities were limited, Ada Lovelace defied societal norms and fervently pursued her passion for mathematics and science. Her mother was responsible in large part for Ada's education. Seeking to shelter Ada from her father's perceived and infamous instabilities, she ensured Ada got a firm grounding in logic and mathematics.10

Figure 1.2 Ada Lovelace, watercolor painting, possibly by Alfred Edward Chalon in 1840

Credit: Science Museum Group / Wikimedia Commans / Public Domain.

When she was 17, Ada Lovelace met Charles Babbage at the house of Mary Sommerfield, a Scottish scientist and mathematician. Sommerfield had recognized a keen scientific intelligence in Lovelace and consciously brought about this intellectual match. Lovelace and Babbage became collaborators.

Her insight into Babbage's Analytical Engine went beyond his own ideas. She envisioned its potential beyond mere calculation. She recognized that the Analytical Engine could be used for more than just crunching numbers; it could be a tool for creativity and generating complex outputs. Her notes included an algorithm for calculating Bernoulli numbers, which is widely regarded as the world's first computer program. This visionary insight earned her the title of the world's first computer programmer.

Unfortunately, like many bright intelligences, she succumbed to her body's infirmities at age 36. But her legacy in computer science guides researchers and engineers to this day.11

John von Neumann

John von Neumann (Figure 1.3) is another of the most prominent people...