Transportation Decision Making

KUMARES C. SINHA, PhD, PE, Hon. M.ASCE, is Edgar B. and Hedwig M. Olson Distinguished Professor in the School of Civil Engineering at Purdue University. Dr. Sinha is the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Transportation Engineering and a former president of the Transportation and Development Institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers. SAMUEL LABI, PhD, is an assistant professor in the School of Civil Engineering at Purdue University. He is currently a visiting scholar at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Preface

Chapter 1 Introductory Concepts in Transportation Decision Making 1

Introduction 1

1.1 Overall Transportation Program Development 1

1.1.1 Network-Level Planning 1

1.1.2 Project Development 2

1.1.3 Programming 2

1.1.4 Budgeting 2

1.1.5 Financial Planning 2

1.2 The Process of Transportation Project Development 2

1.2.1 PDP Steps 3

1.2.2 Federal Legislation That Affects Transportation Decision Making 5

1.3 Impacts of Transportation System Stimuli 6

1.3.1 Types of Transportation Stimuli 6

1.3.2 Impact Categories and Types 7

1.3.3 Dimensions of the Evaluation 9

1.4 Other Ways of Categorizing Transportation System Impacts 11

1.5 Role of Evaluation in PDP and Basic Elements of Evaluation 12

1.5.1 Role of Evaluation in PDP 12

1.5.2 Reasons for Evaluation 12

1.5.3 Measures of a Project’s Worth 12

1.6 Procedure for Transportation System Evaluation 13

1.6.1 Good Practices in Evaluation 18

Summary 18

Exercises 19

References 19

Chapter 2 Performance Measures in Transportation Evaluation 21

Introduction 21

2.1 Transportation System Goals, Objectives, and Performance Measures 21

2.2 Performance Measures at the Network and Project Levels 22

2.3 Properties of a Good Performance Measure 24

2.4 Dimensions of Performance Measures 25

2.5 Performance Measures Associated with Each Dimension 25

2.5.1 Overall Goals 25

2.5.2 System Objectives 26

2.5.3 Sector Concerns and Interests 29

2.5.4 Flow Entity (Passenger and Freight) 29

2.5.5 Type of Transportation Mode 29

2.5.6 Number of Transportation Modes Involved 30

2.5.7 Entity or Stakeholder Affected 32

2.5.8 Spatial Scope 33

2.5.9 Level of Agency Responsibility 33

2.5.10 Time Frame and Level of Refinement 33

2.6 Linking Agency Goals to Performance Measures: State of Practice 33

2.7 Benefits of Using Performance Measures 33

Summary 34

Exercises 34

References 35

Chapter 3 Estimating Transportation Demand 37

Introduction 37

3.1 Transportation Demand 37

3.1.1 Basic Concepts in Transportation Demand Estimation 37

3.1.2 Causes of Shifts in the Transportation Demand Curve 39

3.1.3 Categorization of Demand Estimation Models 39

3.1.4 Aggregate Methods for Project-Level Transportation Demand Estimation 39

3.2 Transportation Supply 48

3.2.1 Concept of Transportation Supply 48

3.2.2 Causes of Shifts in the Transportation Supply Curve 49

3.3 Equilibration and Dynamics of Transportation Demand and Supply 49

3.3.1 Demand–Supply Equilibration 49

3.3.2 Simultaneous Equation Bias in Demand–Supply Equilibration 49

3.3.3 Dynamics of Transportation Demand and Supply 50

3.4 Elasticities of Travel Demand 50

3.4.1 Classification of Elasticities by the Method of Computation 51

3.4.2 Classification of Elasticities by the Attribute Type 52

3.4.3 Classification of Elasticities by the Relative Direction of Response: Direct and Cross-Elasticities 52

3.4.4 Examples of Elasticity Values Used in Practice 53

3.4.5 Application of the Elasticity Concept: Demand Estimation 56

3.4.6 Consumer Surplus and Latent Demand 57

3.5 Emerging Issues in Transportation Demand Estimation 58

Summary 59

Exercises 59

References 61

Additional Resources 63

Chapter 4 Transportation Costs 65

Introduction 65

4.1 Classification of Transportation Costs 65

4.1.1 Classification by the Incurring Party 65

4.1.2 Classification by the Nature of Cost Variation with Output 65

4.1.3 Classification by the Expression of Unit Cost 66

4.1.4 Classification by Position in the Facility Life Cycle 69

4.1.5 Other Classifications of Transportation Costs 69

4.2 Transportation Agency Costs 69

4.2.1 Agency Costs over the Facility Life Cycle 70

4.2.2 Techniques for Estimating Agency Costs 70

4.2.3 Risk as an Element of Agency Cost 72

4.3 Transportation User Costs 72

4.3.1 User Cost Categories 72

4.3.2 Impacts of Demand Elasticity, Induced Demand, and Other Exogenous Changes on User Costs 73

4.4 General Structure and Behavior of Cost Functions 74

4.4.1 Components of a Transportation Cost Function 74

4.4.2 Economies and Diseconomies of Scale 75

4.5 Historical Cost Values and Models for Highway Transportation Systems 76

4.5.1 Highway Agency Cost Models 76

4.5.2 Transit Cost Values and Models 76

4.5.3 Relationships between Transit Operating Costs, System Size, Labor Requirements, and Technology 89

4.5.4 Air Transportation Costs 89

4.6 Issues in Transportation Cost Estimation 90

4.6.1 Aggregated Estimates for Planning vs. Detailed Engineering Estimates for Projects 90

4.6.2 Adjustments for Temporal and Spatial Variations (How to Update Costs) 90

4.6.3 Adjustments for Economies of Scale 91

4.6.4 Problem of Cost Overruns 92

4.6.5 Relative Weight of Agency and User Cost Unit Values 93

Summary 93

Exercises 94

References 94

Chapter 5 Travel-time Impacts 97

Introduction 97

5.1 Categorization of Travel Time 97

5.1.1 Trip Phase 97

5.1.2 Other Bases for Travel-Time Categorization 98

5.2 Procedure for Assessing Travel-Time Impacts 98

5.3 Issues Relating to Travel-Time Value Estimation 104

5.3.1 Conceptual Basis of Time Valuation 104

5.3.2 Factors Affecting the Travel-Time Value 104

5.3.3 Methods for Valuation of Travel Time 107

5.4 Concluding Remarks 115

Summary 115

Exercises 116

References 117

Additional Resources 118

Appendix A5.1: Estimation of Roadway Capacity Using the HCM Method (TRB, 2000) 118

Appendix A5.2: Estimation of Roadway Operating Speeds Using the HCM Method (TRB, 2000) 120

Appendix A5.3: Travel Times Used in World Bank Projects 123

Chapter 6 Evaluation of Safety Impacts 127

Introduction 127

6.1 Basic Definitions and Factors of Transportation Safety 128

6.1.1 Definition of a Crash 128

6.1.2 Transportation Crashes Classified by Severity 128

6.1.3 Categories of Factors Affecting Transportation Crashes 128

6.2 Procedure for Safety Impact Evaluation 131

6.3 Methods for Estimating Crash Reduction Factors 141

6.3.1 Before-and-After Studies 141

6.3.2 Cross-Sectional Studies 142

6.3.3 Comparison of the Before-and-After and Cross-Sectional Methods 143

6.3.4 Elasticity of Crash Frequency 143

6.4 Safety-Related Legislation 144

6.5 Software Packages for Safety Impact Evaluation of Transportation Investments 144

6.5.1 Interactive Highway Safety Design Model 144

6.5.2 Indiana’s Safety Management System 144

6.6 Considerations in Safety Impact Evaluation 144

Summary 145

Exercises 146

References 147

Additional Resources 148

Appendix A6: Crash Reduction and Accident Modification Factors 149

Chapter 7 Vehicle Operating Cost Impacts 157

Introduction 157

7.1 Components of Vehicle Operating Cost 157

7.1.1 Fuel 157

7.1.2 Shipping Inventory 157

7.1.3 Lubricating Oils for Mechanical Working of the Drivetrain 158

7.1.4 Preservation of the Vehicle–Guideway Contact Surface 158

7.1.5 Vehicle Repair and Maintenance 158

7.1.6 Depreciation 158

7.1.7 VOC Data Sources and Average National VOC Rates 158

7.2 Factors that Affect Vehicle Operating Cost 159

7.2.1 Vehicle Type 159

7.2.2 Fuel Type 160

7.2.3 Longitudinal Grade 161

7.2.4 Vehicle Speed 161

7.2.5 Delay 164

7.2.6 Speed Changes 166

7.2.7 Horizontal Curvature 166

7.2.8 Road Surface Condition 167

7.2.9 Other VOC Factors 169

7.3 Procedure for Assessing VOC Impacts 169

7.3.1 Steps for Assessing the Impacts 169

7.3.2 Implementation of Steps 4 to 6 Using the HERS Method 172

7.4 Special Case of VOC Estimation: Work Zones 176

7.5 Selected Software Packages that Include A VOC Estimation Component 176

7.5.1 AASHTO Method 176

7.5.2 HERS Package: National and State Versions 176

7.5.3 HDM-4 Road User Effects 176

7.5.4 Surface Transportation Efficiency Analysis Model 177

7.5.5 Other Models That Include a VOC Estimation Component 177

7.6 Comparison of VOC Estimation Methods and Software 177

7.6.1 Levels of Detail 177

7.6.2 Data Sources 177

Summary 178

Exercises 178

References 179

Additional Resources 180

Appendix A7.1: FHWA (2002) HERS Models for VOC Computation 180

Appendix A7.2: VOC Component Unit Costs 194

Appendix A7.3: Pavement Condition Adjustment Factors 194

Chapter 8 Economic Efficiency Impacts 197

Introduction 197

8.1 Interest Equations and Equivalencies 197

8.1.1 Cash Flow Illustrations 197

8.1.2 The Concept of Interest 197

8.1.3 Types of Compounding and Interest Rates 198

8.1.4 Interest Equations and Key Variables 199

8.1.5 Special Cases of Interest Equations 202

8.2 Criteria for Economic Efficiency Impact Evaluation 204

8.2.1 Present Worth of Costs 204

8.2.2 Equivalent Uniform Annual Cost 204

8.2.3 Equivalent Uniform Annual Return 204

8.2.4 Net Present Value 205

8.2.5 Internal Rate of Return 205

8.2.6 Benefit–Cost Ratio 205

8.2.7 Evaluation Methods Using Incremental Attributes 206

8.2.8 General Discussion of Economic Efficiency Criteria 207

8.3 Procedure for Economic Efficiency Analysis 207

8.4 Software Packages for Economic Efficiency Analysis 209

8.4.1 Surface Transportation Efficiency Analysis Model 209

8.4.2 MicroBenCost Model 209

8.4.3 Highway Development and Management Standards Model 210

8.4.4 Highway Economic Requirements system 210

8.4.5 California DOT’S Cal-B/C System 210

8.5 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis 210

8.6 Case Study: Economic Efficiency Impact Evaluation 210

8.7 Final Comments on Economic Efficiency Analysis 212

Summary 213

Exercises 213

References 215

Additional Resources 216

Appendix A8 216

Chapter 9 Economic Development Impacts 229

Introduction 229

9.1 Economic Development Impact Types 229

9.1.1 Economic Development Impact Types 229

9.1.2 Economic Development Impact Mechanisms 230

9.1.3 Selection of Appropriate Measures of Economic Impact 230

9.2 Tools for Economic Development Impact Assessment 231

9.2.1 Surveys and Interviews 232

9.2.2 Market Studies 235

9.2.3 Comparative Analysis Tools: Case Studies 235

9.2.4 Economic Multiplier/Input–Output Models 237

9.2.5 Statistical Analysis Tools 239

9.2.6 Economic Simulation Models 240

9.3 Estimation of Long-term Regional Economic Development Impacts 241

9.4 Case Study: Economic Development Impact Assessment 244

Summary 246

Exercises 246

References 247

Additional Resources 249

Chapter 10 Air Quality Impacts 251

Introduction 251

10.1 Air Pollution Sources and Trends 251

10.1.1 Pollutant Types, Sources, and Trends 251

10.1.2 Categories of Air Pollution 254

10.2 Estimating Pollutant Emissions 254

10.2.1 Some Definitions 254

10.2.2 Factors Affecting Pollutant Emissions from Motor Vehicles 254

10.2.3 Approaches for Estimating Pollutant Emissions from Highways 256

10.2.4 Procedure for Estimating Highway Pollutant Emissions 258

10.2.5 Software for Estimating Pollutant Emissions 261

10.3 Estimating Pollutant Concentration 265

10.3.1 Factors Affecting Pollutant Dispersion 265

10.3.2 Pollutant Dispersion Models 266

10.3.3 Software for Estimating Pollutant Dispersion and Concentrations 270

10.4 Air Pollution from Other Modes 271

10.4.1 Air Transportation 271

10.4.2 Rail Transportation 273

10.4.3 Marine Transportation 273

10.4.4 Transit (Various Modes) 273

10.5 Monetary Costs of Air Pollution 274

10.5.1 Methods of Air Pollution Cost Estimation 274

10.5.2 Air Pollution Cost Values 275

10.6 Air Quality Standards 276

10.7 Mitigating Air Pollution from Transportation Sources 276

10.8 Air Quality Legislation and Regulations 277

10.8.1 National Legislation 277

10.8.2 Global Agreements 278

Summary 278

Exercises 278

References 279

Additional Resources 280

Appendix A10.1: Using MOBILE6 to Estimate Emissions 280

Appendix A10.2: Values of the Gaussian Distribution Function 284

Chapter 11 Noise Impacts 287

Introduction 287

11.1 Fundamental Concepts of Sound 287

11.1.1 General Characteristics 287

11.1.2 Addition of Sound Pressure Levels from Multiple Sources 288

11.2 Sources of Transportation Noise 290

11.3 Factors Affecting Transportation Noise Propagation 290

11.3.1 Nature of Source, Distance, and Ground Effects 291

11.3.2 Effect of Noise Barriers 292

11.4 Procedure for Estimating Noise Impacts for Highways 292

11.5 Application of the Procedure using the FHWA Model Equations 293

11.5.1 Reference Energy Mean Emission Level 295

11.5.2 Traffic Flow Adjustment 295

11.5.3 Distance Adjustment 295

11.5.4 Adjustment for Finite-Length Roadways 295

11.5.5 Shielding Adjustment 296

11.5.6 Combining Noises from Various Vehicle Classes 299

11.6 Application of the Procedure Using the Traffic Noise Model (TNM) Software Package 300

11.6.1 The Traffic Noise Model 300

11.7 Estimating Noise Impacts for Other Modes 301

11.7.1 Transit Noise and Vibration 301

11.7.2 Air Transportation 301

11.7.3 Rail Transportation 301

11.7.4 Marine Noise 303

11.7.5 General Guidelines for Noise Impact Evaluation of New Transportation Improvements 303

11.8 Mitigation of Transportation Noise 304

11.8.1 Noise Barrier Cost Estimates 305

11.9 Legislation and Regulations Related to Transportation Noise 306

Summary 308

Exercises 308

References 309

Additional Resources 310

Appendix A11: Noise Attenuation Charts by Barriers Defined by

N 0 , φ L ,andφ R 310

Chapter 12 Impacts on Wetlands and other Ecosystems 313

Introduction 313

12.1 Basic Ecological Concepts 313

12.1.1 Concept of Ecosystems 313

12.1.2 Physical Base 314

12.1.3 Wetland Ecosystems 314

12.2 Mechanisms of Ecological Impacts 315

12.2.1 Direct vs. Indirect Mechanisms 315

12.2.2 Impact Mechanism by Species Type 315

12.3 Ecological Impacts of Activities at Various PDP Phases 315

12.3.1 Locational Planning and Preliminary Field Surveys 316

12.3.2 Transportation System Design 319

12.3.3 Construction 319

12.3.4 Operations 319

12.3.5 Maintenance 320

12.4 Performance Goals for Ecological Impact Assessments 320

12.4.1 Diversity of the Physical Base of the Ecosystem 320

12.4.2 State of Habitat Fragmentation 320

12.4.3 Significant Species and Habitats 321

12.4.4 Diversity of Species 321

12.4.5 Ecosystem Stability 321

12.4.6 Ecosystem Quality or Productivity 322

12.5 Procedure for Ecological Impact Assessment 322

12.6 Key Legislation 329

12.6.1 Endangered Species Act of 1973 329

12.6.2 Laws Related to Wetlands and Other Habitats 329

12.7 Mitigation of Ecological Impacts 329

12.7.1 Mitigation at Various Phases of the Project Development Process 331

12.8 Methods and Software Packages for Ecological Impact Assessment 332

12.8.1 Wetland Functional Analysis 332

12.8.2 Hydrogeomorphic Classification Method 333

12.8.3 Habitat Evaluation Procedures Software 334

Summary 334

Exercises 334

References 335

Additional Resources 336

Chapter 13 Impacts on Water Resources 337

Introduction 337

13.1 Categories of Hydrological Impacts 337

13.1.1 Source of Impacts 337

13.1.2 Impact Types 338

13.1.3 Water Source Affected 338

13.1.4 Transportation Mode and Activity 338

13.2 Hydrological Impacts by Transportation Mode 338

13.2.1 Highway Impacts 338

13.2.2 Railway Impacts 339

13.2.3 Air Transportation Impacts 339

13.2.4 Marine Transportation Impacts 341

13.3 Performance Measures for Hydrological Impact Assessment 341

13.3.1 Measures Related to Water Quantity and Flow Patterns 342

13.3.2 Measures Related to Water Quality 342

13.4 Procedure for Water Quality Impact Assessment 343

13.5 Methods for Predicting Impacts on Water Resources 345

13.5.1 Impacts on Water Quantity 345

13.5.2 Impacts on Water Quality 348

13.6 Mitigation of Water Resource Impacts 353

13.6.1 Mitigation Measures by Impact Criterion 353

13.6.2 Mitigation Measures by Nature of Water Source 353

13.6.3 Mitigation Measures by PDP Phase 354

13.6.4 Discussion of Mitigation 354

13.7 Water Quality Standards 354

13.8 Legislation Related to Water Resource Conservation 354

13.9 Software for Water Resources Impact Assessment 355

Summary 355

Exercises 356

References 357

Additional Resources 358

Chapter 14 Visual Impacts 359

Introduction 359

14.1 Principles of Visual Performance 359

14.1.1 General Principles 359

14.1.2 Performance Measures for Visual Performance Assessment 360

14.2 Factors Affecting Visual Performance and Impact Mechanisms 361

14.2.1 Factors 361

14.2.2 Impact Mechanisms 363

14.3 Procedure for Visual Impact Assessment 363

14.4 Legislation Related to Visual Impact 371

14.5 Mitigation of Poor Visual Performance of Existing Facilities 371

14.6 Visual Performance Enhancement: State of Practice 372

14.6.1 Context-Sensitive Design Practices 373

14.6.2 Policies and Guidelines for Visual Performance Preservation and Enhancement 373

14.6.3 Cost of Visual Performance Enhancements 375

Summary 375

Exercises 376

References 376

Additional Resources 377

Chapter 15 Impacts on Energy Use 379

Introduction 379

15.1 Factors that Affect Transportation Energy Consumption 381

15.1.1 Fuel Prices and Taxes 381

15.1.2 Fuel Economy Regulation 381

15.1.3 Vehicle Sales by Class 381

15.1.4 Vehicle Technology 381

15.1.5 Road Geometry 381

15.1.6 Transportation Intervention 382

15.1.7 Other Factors 383

15.2 Energy Intensity 383

15.3 Framework for Energy Impact Analysis 383

15.3.1 Direct Consumption 384

15.3.2 Indirect Consumption 384

15.4 Procedures for Estimating Energy Consumption 386

15.4.1 Macroscopic Assessment: Approach A 386

15.4.2 Project Screening Level Model: Approach B 388

15.4.3 Microscopic Simulation: Approach c 393

15.5 The National Energy Modeling System 397

15.6 Approaches to Energy Consumption Estimation–a Comparison 399

15.7 Energy and Transportation: What the Future Holds 399

Summary 400

Exercises 400

References 401

Additional Resources 401

Chapter 16 Land-use Impacts 403

Introduction 403

16.1 The Transportation–Land-Use Relationship 404

16.1.1 Land-Use Impacts on Transportation 404

16.1.2 Transportation Impacts on Land Use 406

16.1.3 Land-Use Impacts in terms of Monetary Costs 406

16.2 Tools for Analyzing Land-Use Changes 407

16.2.1 Qualitative Tools 408

16.2.2 Quantitative Tools 409

16.3 Procedure for Land-Use Impact Assessment 413

16.4 Case Studies: Land-Use Impact Assessment 419

16.4.1 Evansville-Indianapolis I-69 Highway Project 419

16.4.2 Light-Rail Transit Project 420

Summary 422

Exercises 422

References 423

Chapter 17 Social and Cultural Impacts 427

Introduction 427

17.1 Mechanisms of Transportation Impacts on the Social and Cultural Environments 428

17.1.1 Direct Impacts 428

17.1.2 Indirect Impacts 428

17.1.3 Cumulative Impacts 429

17.2 Target Facilities and Groups, and Performance Measures 429

17.2.1 Target Facilities and Groups 429

17.2.2 Performance Measures 429

17.2.3 The Issue of Poverty Alleviation in Developing Countries 431

17.3 Equity and Environmental Justice Concerns 431

17.3.1 An Example of the Distribution of Project Costs and Benefits 434

17.4 Procedure for Social and Cultural Impact Assessment 435

17.5 Tools for Sociocultural Impact Assessment 439

17.5.1 Qualitative Tools 439

17.5.2 Quantitative Tools 441

17.6 Mitigation of Adverse Sociocultural Impacts 442

17.6.1 Sociocultural Impact Mitigation: State of Practice 442

17.7 Legislation Related to Sociocultural Impacts 443

Summary 444

Exercises 445

References 446

Additional Resources 447

Chapter 18 Evaluation of Transportation Projects and Programs Using Multiple Criteria 449

Introduction 449

18.1 Establishing Weights of Performance Criteria 449

18.1.1 Equal Weighting 449

18.1.2 Direct Weighting 450

18.1.3 Regression-Based Observer-Derived Weighting 450

18.1.4 Delphi Technique 451

18.1.5 Gamble Method 452

18.1.6 Pairwise Comparison of the Performance Criteria 453

18.1.7 Value Swinging Method 455

18.2 Scaling of Performance Criteria 456

18.2.1 Scaling Where Decision Making Is under Certainty 456

18.2.2 Scaling Where Decision Making Is under Risk 458

18.3 Combination of Performance Criteria 462

18.3.1 Combined Mathematical Functions of Value, Utility, or Cost-Effectiveness 462

18.3.2 Ranking and Rating Method 464

18.3.3 Maxmin Approach 465

18.3.4 Impact Index Method 466

18.3.5 Pairwise Comparison of Transportation Alternatives Using Ahp 467

18.3.6 Mathematical Programming 469

18.3.7 Pairwise Comparison of Alternatives Using the Outranking Method 472

18.4 Case Study: Evaluating Alternative Projects for a Transportation Corridor Using Multiple Criteria 473

18.5 General Considerations of Risk and Uncertainty in Evaluation 475

18.5.1 The Case of Certainty: Using Sensitivity Analysis 475

18.5.2 The Case of Objective Risk: Using Probability Distributions and Simulation 476

18.5.3 The Case of Uncertainty 477

Summary 479

Exercises 479

References 481

Additional Resources 481

Chapter 19 Use of Geographical and other Information Systems 483

Introduction 483

19.1 Hardware for Information Management 483

19.2 Software and Other Tools for Information Management 483

19.2.1 Non-GIS Relational Database Management Systems 483

19.2.2 Geographical Information Systems 484

19.2.3 Internet GIS 486

19.2.4 Video Log Information Management Systems 487

19.3 GIS Applications in Transportation Systems Evaluation 487

19.3.1 Query, Display, and Visualization of Initial Data 488

19.3.2 Buffer Analysis 488

19.3.3 Overlay Analysis 489

19.3.4 Analysis of Transportation Operations 489

19.3.5 Public Input in Transportation System Evaluation 489

19.3.6 Multicriteria Decision Making 490

19.4 Existing Databases and Information Systems 490

19.4.1 Information Systems and Data Items Available by Transportation Mode 490

19.4.2 General Databases Useful for Transportation Systems Evaluation 494

19.5 GIS-Based Software Packages for Information Management 495

Summary 495

Exercises 496

References 496

Chapter 20 Transportation Programming 497

Introduction 497

20.1 Roles of Programming 497

20.1.1 Optimal Investment Decisions 498

20.1.2 Trade-off Considerations 498

20.1.3 Linkage to Budgeting 498

20.1.4 Efficiency in Program and Project Delivery 498

20.1.5 Monitoring and Feedback 498

20.2 Procedure for Programming Transportation Projects 499

20.3 Programming Tools 504

20.3.1 Priority Setting 504

20.3.2 Heuristic Optimization 506

20.3.3 Mathematical Programming 506

20.4 Case Studies: Transportation Programming 512

20.4.1 Programming Process at a State Transportation Agency 513

20.4.2 Programming Process at a Metropolitan Area Level 515

20.5 Keys to Successful Programming and Implementation 518

20.5.1 Link between Planning and Programming 518

20.5.2 Uncertainties Affecting Transportation Programming 519

20.5.3 Intergovernmental Relationships 519

20.5.4 Equity Issues in Programming 519

Summary 520

Exercises 520

References 522

Additional Resources 523

General Appendix 1: Cost Indices 525

General Appendix 2: Performance Measures 527

Index 537